La invasión rusa

Anne Applebaum en la Ucrania de los 90: extraños en su propio país

«Entre Este y Oeste» se publicó por primera vez en 1994. El libro describe un viaje que Anne Applebaum hizo desde Kaliningrado hasta Odesa —del Báltico al mar Negro a través de las tierras fronterizas de Europa— en el otoño de 1991, con algunas escenas añadidas de otros viajes realizados en 1992. Muy poco tiempo después, los lugares que la periodista e historiadora había visitado se sumieron en una época de cambios convulsos que afectarían profundamente a todas las personas que había conocido. Hoy, cuando la guerra en Ucrania entra en un delicadísimo tramo, un sendero lleno de fango del cual podría no haber retorno (Alemania acaba de autorizar el envío de sus propios carros de combate a Kiev, una decisión que puede empujar a otros países de la UE a hacer lo mismo), echamos la vista atrás para entender cómo eran, pensaban y vivían algunos de esos testigos del momento bisagra que fue el colapso de la Unión Soviética. Ciudadanos anónimos que, quizá, aún hoy se enfrentan a viejos fantasmas que querrían tener olvidados. En las líneas que siguen, extraídas de la nueva reedición de la obra a cargo de Debate (un texto que no ha sido alterado, ya que ha de verse «como registro documental de una experiencia que no puede repetirse»), la propia Applebaum, ganadora del Premio Pulitzer, narra un encuentro con un lingüista ucraniano, un tipo que -entre coñac y coñac- reconoció ver su propio país (y sus interminables aristas) con los ojos de un extraño.

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El libro describe un viaje que Anne Applebaum hizo desde Kaliningrado hasta Odesa \u2014del B\u00e1ltico al mar Negro a trav\u00e9s de las tierras fronterizas de Europa\u2014 en el oto\u00f1o de 1991, con algunas escenas a\u00f1adidas de otros viajes realizados en 1992. Muy poco tiempo despu\u00e9s, los lugares que la periodista e historiadora hab\u00eda visitado se sumieron en una \u00e9poca de cambios convulsos que afectar\u00edan profundamente a todas las personas que hab\u00eda conocido. Hoy, cuando la guerra en Ucrania entra en un delicad\u00edsimo tramo, un sendero lleno de fango del cual podr\u00eda no haber retorno (Alemania acaba de autorizar el env\u00edo de sus propios carros de combate a Kiev, una decisi\u00f3n que puede empujar a otros pa\u00edses de la UE a hacer lo mismo), echamos la vista atr\u00e1s para entender c\u00f3mo eran, pensaban y viv\u00edan algunos de esos testigos del momento bisagra que fue el colapso de la Uni\u00f3n Sovi\u00e9tica. Ciudadanos an\u00f3nimos que, quiz\u00e1, a\u00fan hoy se enfrentan a viejos fantasmas que querr\u00edan tener olvidados. En las l\u00edneas que siguen, extra\u00eddas de la nueva reedici\u00f3n de la obra a cargo de Debate (un texto que no ha sido alterado, ya que ha de verse \u00abcomo registro documental de una experiencia que no puede repetirse\u00bb), la propia Applebaum, ganadora del Premio Pulitzer, narra un encuentro con un ling\u00fcista ucraniano, un tipo que -entre co\u00f1ac y co\u00f1ac- reconoci\u00f3 ver su propio pa\u00eds (y sus interminables aristas) con los ojos de un 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25 de agosto de 1991. Ciudadanos ucranianos se manifiestan frente a la sede del comit\u00e9 central del Partido Comunista, horas despu\u00e9s de que la rep\u00fablica sovi\u00e9tica declarara su independencia. 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Ciudadanos ucranianos se manifiestan frente a la sede del comit\u00e9 central del Partido Comunista, horas despu\u00e9s de que la rep\u00fablica sovi\u00e9tica declarara su independencia. 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uno de los largos d\u00edas de finales de verano que pas\u00e9 en Vilna, descubr\u00ed por accidente a un ling\u00fcista ucraniano. Era un hombre peque\u00f1o y moreno, con un torso tan rebosante de energ\u00eda que no paraba de dar botes en su silla mientras hablaba. Hab\u00eda vivido en Chernivts\u00ed y en Minsk, en \u00dazhgorod y en Kiev, se hab\u00eda casado con una lituana, y en su cabeza se agolpaban las lenguas, la mayor\u00eda de las tierras fronterizas: ucraniano, ruso, bielorruso, polaco, lituano, los dialectos de Rutenia y Bucovina, rumano, alem\u00e1n, un poquito de turco e ingl\u00e9s, que ahora hablaba conmigo.<\/p><p class=\\\"MsoNormal\\\">\u2014Es la primera vez en mi vida que hablo en ingl\u00e9s con\u00a0<span style=\\\"text-decoration: underline;\\\"><a href=\\\"https:\/\/www.penguinlibros.com\/es\/revista-lengua\/la-invasion-rusa\/anne-applebaum-rusia-ucrania-miguel-aguilar\\\" target=\\\"_blank\\\">una persona inglesa real<\/a><\/span> \u2014me asegur\u00f3\u2014. Brindemos por ello.<o:p><\/o:p><\/p><p class=\\\"MsoNormal\\\">Sirvi\u00f3 dos copas de un delicioso co\u00f1ac armenio y sonri\u00f3 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de varias cosas: de los polacos y lituanos, de la aversi\u00f3n mutua entre b\u00e1lticos y eslavos, de los bielorrusos y su nuevo sentimiento nacional:<\/p><p class=\\\"MsoNormal\\\">\u2014Parecen un poco como ebrios, sin un verdadero rumbo, flotando en el aire, en el espacio, en un espacio donde las cosas no se acaban. S\u00ed \u2014reafirm\u00f3\u2014, en un espacio donde las cosas no est\u00e1n acabadas. \u00bfLo he dicho bien?<\/p><p class=\\\"MsoNormal\\\">Le dije que s\u00ed.<\/p><p class=\\\"MsoNormal\\\"><o:p><\/o:p><\/p><p class=\\\"MsoNormal\\\">\u2014Brindemos tambi\u00e9n por eso \u2014dijo, y sorbi\u00f3 su co\u00f1ac con delicadeza.<o:p><\/o:p><\/p><p class=\\\"MsoNormal\\\">Se mostraba erudito, locuaz y entusiasta en casi todos los temas, se apresuraba a dar una respuesta r\u00e1pida a cada pregunta, y ten\u00eda chistes e historias sobre cualquier naci\u00f3n fronteriza. Solo cuando le llev\u00e9 al tema de Ucrania, su propia naci\u00f3n, empez\u00f3 a atrancarse, aunque fuera solo un poco, a hablar m\u00e1s despacio, a dudar. Finalmente se interrumpi\u00f3 por completo.<o:p><\/o:p><\/p><p class=\\\"MsoNormal\\\">Contin\u00fae, le dije yo. \u00bfQu\u00e9 pasa con Ucrania?<\/p><p class=\\\"MsoNormal\\\">\u2014Bueno, tengo problema con Ucrania. S\u00ed, problema\u2026 \u00bfo se dice un problema?\u2026 Un problema. Ver\u00e1, no s\u00e9 a qu\u00e9 se refiere la gente cuando dice Ucrania. <span style=\\\"text-decoration: underline;\\\"><a href=\\\"https:\/\/www.penguinlibros.com\/es\/revista-lengua\/la-invasion-rusa\/victoria-belim-mi-ucrania-urss-euromaidan-rusia\\\" target=\\\"_blank\\\">Hay muchas Ucranias<\/a><\/span>. Est\u00e1 Kiev, Ucrania central, el coraz\u00f3n de la Rus de Kiev de la que descendemos\u2026 bueno, en Kiev se habla el ucraniano m\u00e1s bonito, el m\u00e1s puro. Est\u00e1 Ucrania oriental (Donetsk, J\u00e1rkov, Dnipropetrovsk), que ha sido tristemente rusa durante tantos a\u00f1os, tantos a\u00f1os, que incluso la lengua se ha perdido, all\u00ed hablan un ruso corrompido, una especie de jerga. Luego est\u00e1 la costa del mar Negro (Crimea, Odesa), conquistada por Catalina la Grande, que la llam\u00f3 Novor\u00f3ssiya, Nueva Rusia, y colonizada por sus cortesanos. Tambi\u00e9n hablan ruso, pero por historia, por derecho, la Tartaria de Crimea pertenece a Ucrania: tenemos muchas conexiones all\u00ed, muchos de nosotros descendemos de los t\u00e1rtaros, ya 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a acelerar de nuevo\u2014. Luego est\u00e1 el norte de Bucovina\u2026 y la hermosa ciudad de Czernowitz, ahora llamada Chernivts\u00ed\u2026 y Besarabia meridional\u2026 tierra de los gaga\u00fazos, los turcos. Esas regiones le fueron arrebatadas a Ruman\u00eda al final de la \u00faltima guerra, y all\u00ed hablan ucraniano y moldavo y una especie de mezcla de ambos;\u00a0<span style=\\\"text-decoration: underline;\\\"><a href=\\\"https:\/\/www.penguinlibros.com\/es\/revista-lengua\/la-invasion-rusa\/igort-cuadernos-ucranianos-y-rusos-salamandra\\\" target=\\\"_blank\\\">\u00a1qu\u00e9 lengua!, quiero decir, \u00a1qu\u00e9 lengua tan interesante!<\/a><\/span> Y Ucrania occidental (aqu\u00ed me refiero a Lviv; Lviv, por supuesto), que anta\u00f1o fue polaca\u2026 \u00a1vaya!, all\u00ed probablemente podr\u00edas arregl\u00e1rtelas hablando polaco, nadie se dar\u00eda cuenta de que hablas una lengua distinta. \u00a1Nadie se dar\u00eda cuenta! Y, por supuesto, Rutenia (Transcarpatia), durante tanto tiempo en manos de Hungr\u00eda y luego Checoslovaquia. \u00bfC\u00f3mo puedo explicarle lo de Rutenia? \u00bfC\u00f3mo puedo expresarlo? Tiene que conocerlo por s\u00ed misma, tiene que ir y plantarse en uno de esos largos pueblos de Rutenia, de esos que se encaraman hasta las monta\u00f1as; vaya y pl\u00e1ntese all\u00ed, ver\u00e1 que es diferente. Escuche la lengua: no es mi ucraniano, no es el ucraniano de Kiev. \u00a1Esc\u00fachelo! \u00a1Es ruteno de Transcarpatia!<\/p><p>\u00bb\u00a1Toda esa variedad\u2026! \u00a1Toda esa variedad\u2026! Pero intentaron quit\u00e1rnosla.\u00a0<span style=\\\"text-decoration: underline;\\\"><a href=\\\"https:\/\/www.penguinlibros.com\/es\/revista-lengua\/la-invasion-rusa\/sofi-oksanen-putin-stalin-rusia-finlandia-el-parque-de-los-perros\\\" target=\\\"_blank\\\">Ahora somos todos sovi\u00e9ticos, <em>Homo sovieticus<\/em><\/a><\/span><a href=\\\"https:\/\/www.penguinlibros.com\/es\/revista-lengua\/la-invasion-rusa\/sofi-oksanen-putin-stalin-rusia-finlandia-el-parque-de-los-perros\\\" target=\\\"_blank\\\"><em>.<\/em><\/a> Nos aglomeraron a todos\u2026 s\u00ed, \u00bfes correcto, aglomeraron?\u2026 nos aglomeraron a todos y nos dijeron que habl\u00e1ramos ruso. La ideolog\u00eda de ese\u00a0<span style=\\\"text-decoration: underline;\\\"><a href=\\\"https:\/\/www.penguinlibros.com\/es\/revista-lengua\/no-ficcion\/marx-en-el-antropoceno-kohei-saito\\\" target=\\\"_blank\\\">movimiento marxista<\/a><\/span> ten\u00eda que ser completamente simple, y absolutamente primitiva y absolutamente contraria a todo lo que hab\u00eda ocurrido en el pasado. \u00a1Pum!, van y lo eliminan todo y nos dicen que todos somos iguales, les dicen a los ucranianos que un ucraniano sovi\u00e9tico es un ucraniano sovi\u00e9tico y no hay m\u00e1s que hablar. Nos ense\u00f1an el ruso, nos dicen que olvidemos todos esos est\u00fapidos dialectos. <span style=\\\"text-decoration: underline;\\\"><a href=\\\"https:\/\/www.penguinlibros.com\/es\/revista-lengua\/la-invasion-rusa\/las-rosas-de-orwell-rebecca-solnit-stalin\\\" target=\\\"_blank\\\">N<\/a><a href=\\\"https:\/\/www.penguinlibros.com\/es\/revista-lengua\/la-invasion-rusa\/las-rosas-de-orwell-rebecca-solnit-stalin\\\" target=\\\"_blank\\\">os ense\u00f1an a ser ucranianos a la manera sovi\u00e9tica<\/a><\/span>.<\/p>\",\"section_style\":\"\",\"align\":\"\",\"align_tablet\":\"\",\"align_mobile\":\"\",\"text_color\":\"#1a1a1a\",\"typography_typography\":\"custom\",\"typography_font_size\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"18\"},\"typography_font_size_tablet\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_font_size_mobile\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_font_family\":\"custom\",\"typography_font_family_custom\":\"Fort-Book\",\"typography_font_weight\":\"\",\"typography_text_transform\":\"\",\"typography_font_style\":\"\",\"typography_line_height\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"27\"},\"typography_line_height_tablet\":{\"unit\":\"em\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_line_height_mobile\":{\"unit\":\"em\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_letter_spacing\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_letter_spacing_tablet\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_letter_spacing_mobile\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"\"},\"_section_style\":\"\",\"_margin\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"0\",\"right\":\"0\",\"bottom\":\"50\",\"left\":\"0\",\"isLinked\":false},\"_margin_tablet\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_margin_mobile\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_padding\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"0\",\"right\":\"0\",\"bottom\":\"0\",\"left\":\"0\",\"isLinked\":false},\"_padding_tablet\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_padding_mobile\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_animation\":\"\",\"animation_duration\":\"\",\"_css_classes\":\"\",\"_section_background\":\"\",\"_background_background\":\"\",\"_background_color\":\"\",\"_background_image\":{\"url\":\"\",\"id\":\"\"},\"_background_position\":\"\",\"_background_attachment\":\"\",\"_background_repeat\":\"\",\"_background_size\":\"\",\"_background_video_link\":\"\",\"_background_video_fallback\":{\"url\":\"\",\"id\":\"\"},\"_border_border\":\"\",\"_border_width\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_border_color\":\"\",\"_border_radius\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_box_shadow_box_shadow_type\":\"\",\"_box_shadow_box_shadow\":{\"horizontal\":0,\"vertical\":0,\"blur\":10,\"spread\":0,\"inset\":\"\",\"color\":\"rgba(0,0,0,0.5)\"},\"_section_responsive\":\"\",\"responsive_description\":\"\",\"hide_desktop\":\"\",\"hide_tablet\":\"\",\"hide_mobile\":\"\"},\"defaultEditSettings\":[],\"widgetType\":\"text-editor\",\"editSettings\":{}},{\"id\":\"tnur3zr\",\"elType\":\"widget\",\"isInner\":false,\"settings\":{\"section_editor\":\"\",\"editor\":\"<p class=\\\"MsoNormal\\\"><strong>OTROS CONTENIDOS DE INTER\u00c9S:<\/strong><\/p><p><span style=\\\"text-decoration: underline;\\\"><a href=\\\"https:\/\/www.penguinlibros.com\/es\/revista-lengua\/la-invasion-rusa\/anne-applebaum-rusia-ucrania-miguel-aguilar\\\" target=\\\"_blank\\\">Anne Applebaum: la crisis ucraniana en cinco preguntas<\/a><\/span><\/p><p><span style=\\\"text-decoration: underline;\\\"><a href=\\\"https:\/\/www.penguinlibros.com\/es\/revista-lengua\/la-invasion-rusa\/victoria-belim-mi-ucrania-urss-euromaidan-rusia\\\" target=\\\"_blank\\\">De la URSS al Euromaid\u00e1n: Ucrania en el abismo generacional<\/a><\/span><\/p><p><span style=\\\"text-decoration: underline;\\\"><a href=\\\"https:\/\/www.penguinlibros.com\/es\/revista-lengua\/la-invasion-rusa\/igort-cuadernos-ucranianos-y-rusos-salamandra\\\" target=\\\"_blank\\\">Igort: el dibujante de la sombra rusa<\/a><\/span><\/p><p><span style=\\\"text-decoration: underline;\\\"><span style=\\\"text-decoration: underline;\\\"><a href=\\\"https:\/\/www.penguinlibros.com\/es\/revista-lengua\/no-ficcion\/chernobil-svetlana-alexievich-carmen-de-la-cueva\\\">La casa muerta: regreso a Chern\u00f3bil<\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\",\"section_style\":\"\",\"align\":\"\",\"align_tablet\":\"\",\"align_mobile\":\"\",\"text_color\":\"#1a1a1a\",\"typography_typography\":\"custom\",\"typography_font_size\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"18\"},\"typography_font_size_tablet\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_font_size_mobile\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_font_family\":\"custom\",\"typography_font_family_custom\":\"Fort-Book\",\"typography_font_weight\":\"\",\"typography_text_transform\":\"\",\"typography_font_style\":\"\",\"typography_line_height\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"27\"},\"typography_line_height_tablet\":{\"unit\":\"em\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_line_height_mobile\":{\"unit\":\"em\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_letter_spacing\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_letter_spacing_tablet\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_letter_spacing_mobile\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"\"},\"_section_style\":\"\",\"_margin\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"0\",\"right\":\"0\",\"bottom\":\"58\",\"left\":\"0\",\"isLinked\":false},\"_margin_tablet\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_margin_mobile\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_padding\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"20\",\"right\":\"20\",\"bottom\":\"20\",\"left\":\"20\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_padding_tablet\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_padding_mobile\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_animation\":\"\",\"animation_duration\":\"\",\"_css_classes\":\"\",\"_section_background\":\"\",\"_background_background\":\"\",\"_background_color\":\"\",\"_background_image\":{\"url\":\"\",\"id\":\"\"},\"_background_position\":\"\",\"_background_attachment\":\"\",\"_background_repeat\":\"\",\"_background_size\":\"\",\"_background_video_link\":\"\",\"_background_video_fallback\":{\"url\":\"\",\"id\":\"\"},\"_border_border\":\"solid\",\"_border_width\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"1\",\"right\":\"1\",\"bottom\":\"1\",\"left\":\"1\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_border_color\":\"\",\"_border_radius\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"20\",\"right\":\"20\",\"bottom\":\"20\",\"left\":\"20\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_box_shadow_box_shadow_type\":\"\",\"_box_shadow_box_shadow\":{\"horizontal\":0,\"vertical\":0,\"blur\":10,\"spread\":0,\"inset\":\"\",\"color\":\"rgba(0,0,0,0.5)\"},\"_section_responsive\":\"\",\"responsive_description\":\"\",\"hide_desktop\":\"\",\"hide_tablet\":\"\",\"hide_mobile\":\"\"},\"defaultEditSettings\":[],\"widgetType\":\"text-editor\",\"editSettings\":{}},{\"id\":\"6ka0kth\",\"elType\":\"widget\",\"isInner\":false,\"settings\":{\"section_editor\":\"\",\"editor\":\"<p>\u00bbEntonces ahora tenemos la democratizaci\u00f3n, y <span style=\\\"text-decoration: underline;\\\"><a href=\\\"https:\/\/www.penguinlibros.com\/es\/revista-lengua\/despedidas\/muerte-gorbachov-william-taubman\\\" target=\\\"_blank\\\">la democratizaci\u00f3n va acompa\u00f1ada de nuevo nacionalismo<\/a><\/span>, es inevitable. Tenemos nuevo nacionalismo ucraniano. Somos una sociedad arruinada hasta tal punto que necesitamos las formas m\u00e1s sencillas de interesar a la gente en el proceso, y la forma m\u00e1s sencilla es el resurgimiento nacional. Pero me temo que\u2026 \u2014Se levant\u00f3 y empez\u00f3 a pasear de un lado a otro de la habitaci\u00f3n\u2014. Me temo que este nacionalismo ser\u00e1 unificador en el mal sentido. Nuestro pueblo no reconocer\u00e1 el valor de sus diferencias. Querr\u00e1n que todos sean iguales, querr\u00e1n que los ucranianos sean iguales. Y entonces algunos se opondr\u00e1n a ello, algunos sentir\u00e1n que la ucranizaci\u00f3n es mala. Pero los ucranianos solo conocen un modelo, el modelo sovi\u00e9tico, y ese modelo dec\u00eda que la uni\u00f3n hace la fuerza. Pero lo que hace la fuerza son las diferencias. <span style=\\\"text-decoration: underline;\\\"><a href=\\\"https:\/\/www.penguinlibros.com\/es\/biografias\/298105-libro-mi-ucrania-9788426424136\\\" target=\\\"_blank\\\">La variedad, esa es la belleza de Ucrania. La variedad es su tesoro<\/a><\/span>.\u00a0<\/p><p>\u2014Aqu\u00ed el entusiasmo del ling\u00fcista alcanz\u00f3 su cota m\u00e1xima y luego decay\u00f3 de repente. Agit\u00f3 las manos en el aire\u2014. Todo lo que digo\u2026 Intento ser lo m\u00e1s claro posible\u2026 pero mi ingl\u00e9s no es materno, ya sabe, no es materno.<\/p><p>Se desplom\u00f3 de nuevo en su silla, frustrado.<\/p><p>Le dije que le entend\u00eda perfectamente. \u00c9l suspir\u00f3 y se sirvi\u00f3 otra copa de 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Un ni\u00f1o peque\u00f1o se sube al monumento que simboliza la amistad entre los pueblos ruso y ucraniano. Ucrania fue proclamada por el parlamento ucraniano como un estado democr\u00e1tico independiente el 24 de agosto de 1991, estatus confirmado el 1 de diciembre de 1991 a trav\u00e9s de refer\u00e9ndum y de las primeras elecciones presidenciales. 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muy dif\u00edcil, s\u00ed, muy dif\u00edcil de entender. No somos una naci\u00f3n nueva como Bielorrusia, f\u00edjese, somos una naci\u00f3n muy antigua. Somos una naci\u00f3n muy antigua, pero nunca en nuestra historia hemos tenido un Estado propio. <span style=\\\"text-decoration: underline;\\\"><a href=\\\"https:\/\/www.penguinlibros.com\/es\/revista-lengua\/la-invasion-rusa\\\" target=\\\"_blank\\\">Nuestro destino ha sido siempre existir bajo el dominio de otros<\/a><\/span>. Y tambi\u00e9n ha sido nuestro destino ser definidos por otros. Me temo que debido a ello dejaremos que los for\u00e1neos nos digan que estamos unidos, aceptaremos esa idea sovi\u00e9tica de unidad porque no nos conocemos a nosotros mismos. Los aut\u00e9nticos ucranianos no tienen una imagen de s\u00ed mismos, por lo que no tendremos la confianza para ser diversos, para permitir que florezcan nuestros diferentes dialectos. Pero hasta yo, hasta yo a veces me siento perdido cuando me piden que hable de mi propio pa\u00eds, que explique c\u00f3mo es, qu\u00e9 es.<\/p><p>\u00bbF\u00edjese, a veces les digo a mis allegados, a mi gente m\u00e1s cercana, a mis amigos lituanos, a veces les digo: vosotros no conoc\u00e9is el mundo del que vengo; no conoc\u00e9is esa tierra ucraniana, ese tipo de barro que ten\u00edamos en la aldea donde crec\u00ed, y las flores ucranianas, los olores ucranianos\u2026 Pero yo no puedo transmitirlo, es imposible de describir. Una vez le ped\u00ed a un amigo, que era artista, que me ayudara a describirlo, y \u00e9l solo pudo decir: <span style=\\\"text-decoration: underline;\\\"><a href=\\\"https:\/\/www.penguinlibros.com\/es\/revista-lengua\/la-invasion-rusa\/igort-cuadernos-ucranianos-y-rusos-salamandra\\\" target=\\\"_blank\\\">\u00abuna aldea ucraniana huele\u2026 distinto\u00bb<\/a><\/span>. Yo ahora mismo ni siquiera puedo a\u00f1adir nada m\u00e1s, porque ello requiere un estado de \u00e1nimo diferente, un tipo diferente de conversaci\u00f3n, menos erudita\u2026 Es cierto, sin embargo, es verdad que en parte soy un extra\u00f1o. S\u00ed, soy ucraniano, pero tambi\u00e9n soy un extra\u00f1o en Ucrania.<\/p><p>Le pregunt\u00e9 a qu\u00e9 se refer\u00eda.<\/p><p>\u2014Es por mi nombre. Ver\u00e1, mi nombre es turco. No es un nombre ucraniano. Y tengo algo de sangre turca\u2026 Mire, tengo la piel oscura. Durante la guerra, mi t\u00eda y mi t\u00edo nos escondieron a mis hermanos y a m\u00ed en su s\u00f3tano. Nos ocultaron. Nos escondieron porque los vecinos pod\u00edan pensar, por nuestro nombre turco y nuestra piel oscura, que \u00e9ramos jud\u00edos. <span style=\\\"text-decoration: underline;\\\"><a href=\\\"https:\/\/www.penguinlibros.com\/es\/revista-lengua\/entrevistas\/art-spiegelman-liniers\\\" target=\\\"_blank\\\">As\u00ed que soy como un jud\u00edo en mi propio pa\u00eds<\/a><\/span>. Desde mi infancia jud\u00eda, veo mi propio pa\u00eds como si fuera un extra\u00f1o.<\/p><p>Y eso mismo \u2014a\u00f1adi\u00f3\u2014 era lo m\u00e1s ucraniano de todo: leer la historia de tu pa\u00eds como si lo hicieras a trav\u00e9s de los ojos de un extra\u00f1o. El destino de las naciones fronterizas era siempre conocerte a trav\u00e9s de las historias de otras, realizarte solo con la ayuda de otras.<\/p>\",\"section_style\":\"\",\"align\":\"\",\"align_tablet\":\"\",\"align_mobile\":\"\",\"text_color\":\"#1a1a1a\",\"typography_typography\":\"custom\",\"typography_font_size\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"18\"},\"typography_font_size_tablet\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_font_size_mobile\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_font_family\":\"custom\",\"typography_font_family_custom\":\"Fort-Book\",\"typography_font_weight\":\"\",\"typography_text_transform\":\"\",\"typography_font_style\":\"\",\"typography_line_height\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"27\"},\"typography_line_height_tablet\":{\"unit\":\"em\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_line_height_mobile\":{\"unit\":\"em\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_letter_spacing\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_letter_spacing_tablet\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_letter_spacing_mobile\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"\"},\"_section_style\":\"\",\"_margin\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"0\",\"right\":\"0\",\"bottom\":\"50\",\"left\":\"0\",\"isLinked\":false},\"_margin_tablet\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_margin_mobile\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_padding\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_padding_tablet\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_padding_mobile\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_animation\":\"\",\"animation_duration\":\"\",\"_css_classes\":\"\",\"_section_background\":\"\",\"_background_background\":\"\",\"_background_color\":\"\",\"_background_image\":{\"url\":\"\",\"id\":\"\"},\"_background_position\":\"\",\"_background_attachment\":\"\",\"_background_repeat\":\"\",\"_background_size\":\"\",\"_background_video_link\":\"\",\"_background_video_fallback\":{\"url\":\"\",\"id\":\"\"},\"_border_border\":\"\",\"_border_width\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_border_color\":\"\",\"_border_radius\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_box_shadow_box_shadow_type\":\"\",\"_box_shadow_box_shadow\":{\"horizontal\":0,\"vertical\":0,\"blur\":10,\"spread\":0,\"inset\":\"\",\"color\":\"rgba(0,0,0,0.5)\"},\"_section_responsive\":\"\",\"responsive_description\":\"\",\"hide_desktop\":\"\",\"hide_tablet\":\"\",\"hide_mobile\":\"\"},\"defaultEditSettings\":[],\"widgetType\":\"text-editor\",\"editSettings\":{}},{\"id\":\"9qgowf8\",\"elType\":\"widget\",\"isInner\":false,\"settings\":{\"section_editor\":\"\",\"editor\":\"<p class=\\\"MsoNormal\\\"><strong>M\u00c1S CONTENIDOS DE INTER\u00c9S:<\/strong><\/p><p><span style=\\\"text-decoration: underline;\\\"><a href=\\\"https:\/\/www.penguinlibros.com\/es\/revista-lengua\/la-invasion-rusa\/sofi-oksanen-putin-stalin-rusia-finlandia-el-parque-de-los-perros\\\" target=\\\"_blank\\\">De Stalin a Putin: Finlandia y la sonrisa del tirano<\/a><\/span><\/p><p><span style=\\\"text-decoration: underline;\\\"><a href=\\\"https:\/\/www.penguinlibros.com\/es\/revista-lengua\/la-invasion-rusa\/barack-obama-vladimir-putin\\\" target=\\\"_blank\\\">Putin por Obama: \u00abEs como un jefe de distrito, solo que con misiles nucleares\u00bb<\/a><\/span><\/p><p><span style=\\\"text-decoration: underline;\\\"><a href=\\\"https:\/\/www.penguinlibros.com\/es\/revista-lengua\/la-invasion-rusa\/las-rosas-de-orwell-rebecca-solnit-stalin\\\" target=\\\"_blank\\\">Ucrania, Putin y los limones de Stalin<\/a><\/span><\/p><p><span style=\\\"text-decoration: underline;\\\"><span style=\\\"text-decoration: underline;\\\"><a href=\\\"https:\/\/www.penguinlibros.com\/es\/revista-lengua\/despedidas\/muerte-gorbachov-william-taubman\\\" target=\\\"_blank\\\">Para entender a Gorbachov<\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\",\"section_style\":\"\",\"align\":\"\",\"align_tablet\":\"\",\"align_mobile\":\"\",\"text_color\":\"#1a1a1a\",\"typography_typography\":\"custom\",\"typography_font_size\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"18\"},\"typography_font_size_tablet\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_font_size_mobile\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_font_family\":\"custom\",\"typography_font_family_custom\":\"Fort-Book\",\"typography_font_weight\":\"\",\"typography_text_transform\":\"\",\"typography_font_style\":\"\",\"typography_line_height\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"27\"},\"typography_line_height_tablet\":{\"unit\":\"em\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_line_height_mobile\":{\"unit\":\"em\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_letter_spacing\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_letter_spacing_tablet\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_letter_spacing_mobile\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"\"},\"_section_style\":\"\",\"_margin\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"0\",\"right\":\"0\",\"bottom\":\"58\",\"left\":\"0\",\"isLinked\":false},\"_margin_tablet\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_margin_mobile\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_padding\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"20\",\"right\":\"20\",\"bottom\":\"20\",\"left\":\"20\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_padding_tablet\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_padding_mobile\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_animation\":\"\",\"animation_duration\":\"\",\"_css_classes\":\"\",\"_section_background\":\"\",\"_background_background\":\"\",\"_background_color\":\"\",\"_background_image\":{\"url\":\"\",\"id\":\"\"},\"_background_position\":\"\",\"_background_attachment\":\"\",\"_background_repeat\":\"\",\"_background_size\":\"\",\"_background_video_link\":\"\",\"_background_video_fallback\":{\"url\":\"\",\"id\":\"\"},\"_border_border\":\"solid\",\"_border_width\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"1\",\"right\":\"1\",\"bottom\":\"1\",\"left\":\"1\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_border_color\":\"\",\"_border_radius\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"20\",\"right\":\"20\",\"bottom\":\"20\",\"left\":\"20\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_box_shadow_box_shadow_type\":\"\",\"_box_shadow_box_shadow\":{\"horizontal\":0,\"vertical\":0,\"blur\":10,\"spread\":0,\"inset\":\"\",\"color\":\"rgba(0,0,0,0.5)\"},\"_section_responsive\":\"\",\"responsive_description\":\"\",\"hide_desktop\":\"\",\"hide_tablet\":\"\",\"hide_mobile\":\"\"},\"defaultEditSettings\":[],\"widgetType\":\"text-editor\",\"editSettings\":{}}],\"editSettings\":{}}],\"editSettings\":{}},{\"id\":\"52truo2\",\"elType\":\"section\",\"isInner\":false,\"settings\":{\"section_layout\":\"\",\"stretch_section\":\"section-stretched\",\"layout\":\"full_width\",\"content_width\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"\"},\"gap\":\"default\",\"height\":\"default\",\"custom_height\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":400},\"column_position\":\"middle\",\"content_position\":\"\",\"structure\":\"10\",\"section_background\":\"\",\"background_background\":\"\",\"background_color\":\"\",\"background_color_stop\":{\"unit\":\"%\",\"size\":0},\"background_color_b\":\"\",\"background_color_b_stop\":{\"unit\":\"%\",\"size\":100},\"background_gradient_type\":\"linear\",\"background_gradient_angle\":{\"unit\":\"deg\",\"size\":180},\"background_gradient_position\":\"center 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10 minutos
Kiev. 25 de agosto de 1991. Ciudadanos ucranianos se manifiestan frente a la sede del comité central del Partido Comunista, horas después de que la república soviética declarara su independencia. Crédito: Getty Images.

Kiev. 25 de agosto de 1991. Ciudadanos ucranianos se manifiestan frente a la sede del comité central del Partido Comunista, horas después de que la república soviética declarara su independencia. Crédito: Getty Images.

Durante uno de los largos días de finales de verano que pasé en Vilna, descubrí por accidente a un lingüista ucraniano. Era un hombre pequeño y moreno, con un torso tan rebosante de energía que no paraba de dar botes en su silla mientras hablaba. Había vivido en Chernivtsí y en Minsk, en Úzhgorod y en Kiev, se había casado con una lituana, y en su cabeza se agolpaban las lenguas, la mayoría de las tierras fronterizas: ucraniano, ruso, bielorruso, polaco, lituano, los dialectos de Rutenia y Bucovina, rumano, alemán, un poquito de turco e inglés, que ahora hablaba conmigo.

—Es la primera vez en mi vida que hablo en inglés con una persona inglesa real —me aseguró—. Brindemos por ello.

Sirvió dos copas de un delicioso coñac armenio y sonrió abiertamente.

Hablamos de varias cosas: de los polacos y lituanos, de la aversión mutua entre bálticos y eslavos, de los bielorrusos y su nuevo sentimiento nacional:

—Parecen un poco como ebrios, sin un verdadero rumbo, flotando en el aire, en el espacio, en un espacio donde las cosas no se acaban. Sí —reafirmó—, en un espacio donde las cosas no están acabadas. ¿Lo he dicho bien?

Le dije que sí.

—Brindemos también por eso —dijo, y sorbió su coñac con delicadeza.

Se mostraba erudito, locuaz y entusiasta en casi todos los temas, se apresuraba a dar una respuesta rápida a cada pregunta, y tenía chistes e historias sobre cualquier nación fronteriza. Solo cuando le llevé al tema de Ucrania, su propia nación, empezó a atrancarse, aunque fuera solo un poco, a hablar más despacio, a dudar. Finalmente se interrumpió por completo.

Continúe, le dije yo. ¿Qué pasa con Ucrania?

—Bueno, tengo problema con Ucrania. Sí, problema… ¿o se dice un problema?… Un problema. Verá, no sé a qué se refiere la gente cuando dice Ucrania. Hay muchas Ucranias. Está Kiev, Ucrania central, el corazón de la Rus de Kiev de la que descendemos… bueno, en Kiev se habla el ucraniano más bonito, el más puro. Está Ucrania oriental (Donetsk, Járkov, Dnipropetrovsk), que ha sido tristemente rusa durante tantos años, tantos años, que incluso la lengua se ha perdido, allí hablan un ruso corrompido, una especie de jerga. Luego está la costa del mar Negro (Crimea, Odesa), conquistada por Catalina la Grande, que la llamó Novoróssiya, Nueva Rusia, y colonizada por sus cortesanos. También hablan ruso, pero por historia, por derecho, la Tartaria de Crimea pertenece a Ucrania: tenemos muchas conexiones allí, muchos de nosotros descendemos de los tártaros, ya sabe.

—Empezó a acelerar de nuevo—. Luego está el norte de Bucovina… y la hermosa ciudad de Czernowitz, ahora llamada Chernivtsí… y Besarabia meridional… tierra de los gagaúzos, los turcos. Esas regiones le fueron arrebatadas a Rumanía al final de la última guerra, y allí hablan ucraniano y moldavo y una especie de mezcla de ambos; ¡qué lengua!, quiero decir, ¡qué lengua tan interesante! Y Ucrania occidental (aquí me refiero a Lviv; Lviv, por supuesto), que antaño fue polaca… ¡vaya!, allí probablemente podrías arreglártelas hablando polaco, nadie se daría cuenta de que hablas una lengua distinta. ¡Nadie se daría cuenta! Y, por supuesto, Rutenia (Transcarpatia), durante tanto tiempo en manos de Hungría y luego Checoslovaquia. ¿Cómo puedo explicarle lo de Rutenia? ¿Cómo puedo expresarlo? Tiene que conocerlo por sí misma, tiene que ir y plantarse en uno de esos largos pueblos de Rutenia, de esos que se encaraman hasta las montañas; vaya y plántese allí, verá que es diferente. Escuche la lengua: no es mi ucraniano, no es el ucraniano de Kiev. ¡Escúchelo! ¡Es ruteno de Transcarpatia!

»¡Toda esa variedad…! ¡Toda esa variedad…! Pero intentaron quitárnosla. Ahora somos todos soviéticos, Homo sovieticus. Nos aglomeraron a todos… sí, ¿es correcto, aglomeraron?… nos aglomeraron a todos y nos dijeron que habláramos ruso. La ideología de ese movimiento marxista tenía que ser completamente simple, y absolutamente primitiva y absolutamente contraria a todo lo que había ocurrido en el pasado. ¡Pum!, van y lo eliminan todo y nos dicen que todos somos iguales, les dicen a los ucranianos que un ucraniano soviético es un ucraniano soviético y no hay más que hablar. Nos enseñan el ruso, nos dicen que olvidemos todos esos estúpidos dialectos. Nos enseñan a ser ucranianos a la manera soviética.

»Entonces ahora tenemos la democratización, y la democratización va acompañada de nuevo nacionalismo, es inevitable. Tenemos nuevo nacionalismo ucraniano. Somos una sociedad arruinada hasta tal punto que necesitamos las formas más sencillas de interesar a la gente en el proceso, y la forma más sencilla es el resurgimiento nacional. Pero me temo que… —Se levantó y empezó a pasear de un lado a otro de la habitación—. Me temo que este nacionalismo será unificador en el mal sentido. Nuestro pueblo no reconocerá el valor de sus diferencias. Querrán que todos sean iguales, querrán que los ucranianos sean iguales. Y entonces algunos se opondrán a ello, algunos sentirán que la ucranización es mala. Pero los ucranianos solo conocen un modelo, el modelo soviético, y ese modelo decía que la unión hace la fuerza. Pero lo que hace la fuerza son las diferencias. La variedad, esa es la belleza de Ucrania. La variedad es su tesoro

—Aquí el entusiasmo del lingüista alcanzó su cota máxima y luego decayó de repente. Agitó las manos en el aire—. Todo lo que digo… Intento ser lo más claro posible… pero mi inglés no es materno, ya sabe, no es materno.

Se desplomó de nuevo en su silla, frustrado.

Le dije que le entendía perfectamente. Él suspiró y se sirvió otra copa de coñac.

Kiev. 21 de septiembre de 1994. Un niño pequeño se sube al monumento que simboliza la amistad entre los pueblos ruso y ucraniano. Ucrania fue proclamada por el parlamento ucraniano como un estado democrático independiente el 24 de agosto de 1991, estatus confirmado el 1 de diciembre de 1991 a través de referéndum y de las primeras elecciones presidenciales. Crédito: Getty Images.

Kiev. 21 de septiembre de 1994. Un niño pequeño se sube al monumento que simboliza la amistad entre los pueblos ruso y ucraniano. Ucrania fue proclamada por el parlamento ucraniano como un estado democrático independiente el 24 de agosto de 1991, estatus confirmado el 1 de diciembre de 1991 a través de referéndum y de las primeras elecciones presidenciales. Crédito: Getty Images.

—Es muy difícil, sí, muy difícil de entender. No somos una nación nueva como Bielorrusia, fíjese, somos una nación muy antigua. Somos una nación muy antigua, pero nunca en nuestra historia hemos tenido un Estado propio. Nuestro destino ha sido siempre existir bajo el dominio de otros. Y también ha sido nuestro destino ser definidos por otros. Me temo que debido a ello dejaremos que los foráneos nos digan que estamos unidos, aceptaremos esa idea soviética de unidad porque no nos conocemos a nosotros mismos. Los auténticos ucranianos no tienen una imagen de sí mismos, por lo que no tendremos la confianza para ser diversos, para permitir que florezcan nuestros diferentes dialectos. Pero hasta yo, hasta yo a veces me siento perdido cuando me piden que hable de mi propio país, que explique cómo es, qué es.

»Fíjese, a veces les digo a mis allegados, a mi gente más cercana, a mis amigos lituanos, a veces les digo: vosotros no conocéis el mundo del que vengo; no conocéis esa tierra ucraniana, ese tipo de barro que teníamos en la aldea donde crecí, y las flores ucranianas, los olores ucranianos… Pero yo no puedo transmitirlo, es imposible de describir. Una vez le pedí a un amigo, que era artista, que me ayudara a describirlo, y él solo pudo decir: «una aldea ucraniana huele… distinto». Yo ahora mismo ni siquiera puedo añadir nada más, porque ello requiere un estado de ánimo diferente, un tipo diferente de conversación, menos erudita… Es cierto, sin embargo, es verdad que en parte soy un extraño. Sí, soy ucraniano, pero también soy un extraño en Ucrania.

Le pregunté a qué se refería.

—Es por mi nombre. Verá, mi nombre es turco. No es un nombre ucraniano. Y tengo algo de sangre turca… Mire, tengo la piel oscura. Durante la guerra, mi tía y mi tío nos escondieron a mis hermanos y a mí en su sótano. Nos ocultaron. Nos escondieron porque los vecinos podían pensar, por nuestro nombre turco y nuestra piel oscura, que éramos judíos. Así que soy como un judío en mi propio país. Desde mi infancia judía, veo mi propio país como si fuera un extraño.

Y eso mismo —añadió— era lo más ucraniano de todo: leer la historia de tu país como si lo hicieras a través de los ojos de un extraño. El destino de las naciones fronterizas era siempre conocerte a través de las historias de otras, realizarte solo con la ayuda de otras.

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