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Mussolini para las masas: Scurati y las cuentas con el pasado
Tras el incontestable éxito de «M. El hijo del siglo» y «M. El hombre de la providencia», Antonio Scurati publica «M. Los últimos días de Europa» (todos bajo edición de Alfaguara), donde describe la sumisión final de Mussolini ante Hitler y consolida su proyecto literario sobre el papel del fascismo en la Italia de mediados del siglo XX. Un retrato de un tiempo y un lugar que parece tener su reflejo en la Europa actual -y no sólo en Europa- gracias al auge de movimientos y partidos populistas que recuperan técnicas del pasado -discursos y estrategias como las que llevaron a Mussolini al poder- para medrar y hacerse fuertes en el tablero político y social en el que vivimos. En la siguiente entrevista, el escritor y profesor italiano habla de estos paralelismos al tiempo que advierte de la necesidad de echar la vista atrás y enviar mensajes claros a través de los libros para recuperar el control de la democracia.
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Hablamos con \u00e9l sobre la necesidad de echar la vista atr\u00e1s para recuperar el control de la democracia.","meta_keywords":"Revista LENGUA, Antonio Scurati, Benito Mussolini, Alfaguara","short_content":"<p>Tras el incontestable \u00e9xito de \u00abM. El hijo del siglo\u00bb y \u00abM. El hombre de la providencia\u00bb, Antonio Scurati publica \u00abM. Los \u00faltimos d\u00edas de Europa\u00bb (todos bajo edici\u00f3n de Alfaguara), donde describe la sumisi\u00f3n final de Mussolini ante Hitler y consolida su proyecto literario sobre el papel del fascismo en la Italia de mediados del siglo XX. Un retrato de un tiempo y un lugar que parece tener su reflejo en la Europa actual -y no s\u00f3lo en Europa- gracias al auge de movimientos y partidos populistas que recuperan t\u00e9cnicas del pasado -discursos y estrategias como las que llevaron a Mussolini al poder- para medrar y hacerse fuertes en el tablero pol\u00edtico y social en el que vivimos. En la siguiente entrevista, el escritor y profesor italiano habla de estos paralelismos al tiempo que advierte de la necesidad de echar la vista atr\u00e1s y enviar mensajes claros a trav\u00e9s de los libros para recuperar el control de la democracia.<\/p>","full_content":"","content":"[{\"id\":\"raal1c3\",\"elType\":\"section\",\"isInner\":false,\"settings\":{\"section_layout\":\"\",\"stretch_section\":\"\",\"layout\":\"boxed\",\"content_width\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"\"},\"gap\":\"default\",\"height\":\"default\",\"custom_height\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":400},\"column_position\":\"middle\",\"content_position\":\"\",\"structure\":\"10\",\"section_background\":\"\",\"background_background\":\"\",\"background_color\":\"\",\"background_color_stop\":{\"unit\":\"%\",\"size\":0},\"background_color_b\":\"\",\"background_color_b_stop\":{\"unit\":\"%\",\"size\":100},\"background_gradient_type\":\"linear\",\"background_gradient_angle\":{\"unit\":\"deg\",\"size\":180},\"background_gradient_position\":\"center 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center\",\"background_image\":{\"url\":\"\",\"id\":\"\"},\"background_position\":\"\",\"background_attachment\":\"\",\"background_repeat\":\"\",\"background_size\":\"\",\"background_video_link\":\"\",\"background_video_fallback\":{\"url\":\"\",\"id\":\"\"},\"border_border\":\"\",\"border_width\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"border_color\":\"\",\"border_radius\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"box_shadow_box_shadow_type\":\"\",\"box_shadow_box_shadow\":{\"horizontal\":0,\"vertical\":0,\"blur\":10,\"spread\":0,\"inset\":\"\",\"color\":\"rgba(0,0,0,0.5)\"},\"section_typo\":\"\",\"heading_color\":\"\",\"color_text\":\"\",\"color_link\":\"\",\"color_link_hover\":\"\",\"text_align\":\"\",\"section_advanced\":\"\",\"margin\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"margin_tablet\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"margin_mobile\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"padding\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"padding_tablet\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"padding_mobile\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"animation\":\"\",\"animation_duration\":\"\",\"css_classes\":\"\",\"section_responsive\":\"\",\"screen_sm\":\"default\",\"screen_sm_width\":\"100\"},\"defaultEditSettings\":[],\"elements\":[{\"id\":\"ihjpxxv\",\"elType\":\"widget\",\"isInner\":false,\"settings\":{\"section_editor\":\"\",\"editor\":\"<p>La fecha de nacimiento de un hombre no revela solo su edad, tambi\u00e9n nos indica el tiempo del que proviene.\u00a0<span style=\\\"text-decoration: underline;\\\"><a href=\\\"https:\/\/www.penguinlibros.com\/es\/4670-antonio-scurati\\\" target=\\\"_blank\\\">Antonio Scurati<\/a><\/span> naci\u00f3 en junio de 1969, un a\u00f1o despu\u00e9s del mayo del 68 y de que los tanques tomaran las calles durante la Primavera de Praga. Una fecha que marca el final de aquella revolucionaria y cultural d\u00e9cada de los sesenta, pero que tambi\u00e9n se\u00f1ala el inicio de los denominados <span style=\\\"text-decoration: underline;\\\"><a href=\\\"https:\/\/es.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/A%C3%B1os_de_Plomo_(Italia)#:~:text=Los%20a%C3%B1os%20del%20plomo%20(en,derecha%20y%20del%20terrorismo%20pol%C3%ADtico.\\\" target=\\\"_blank\\\">A\u00f1os de Plomo en Italia<\/a><\/span>. Un peculiar contexto de la Guerra Fr\u00eda que arranc\u00f3 con las huelgas del llamado Oto\u00f1o Caliente, prosigui\u00f3 con el atentado de Piazza Fontana, perpetrado por la ultraderecha, que dej\u00f3 17 muertos y alrededor de ochenta heridos, y que culminar\u00eda con la fundaci\u00f3n de las Brigadas Rojas unos meses despu\u00e9s, ya en 1970.<\/p><p>Este periodo, que se extender\u00eda hasta finales de los ochenta, result\u00f3 convulso, muy ideologizado, pero a la vez provisto de una enorme conciencia pol\u00edtica y compromiso intelectual. Resulta tentador preguntarse por la influencia que dejar\u00eda todo este ambiente de evidentes complejidades y violencias en las generaciones de muchachos que crecieron a su amparo y que todav\u00eda manten\u00edan viva la memoria familiar de su pa\u00eds, que hab\u00eda sido <span style=\\\"text-decoration: underline;\\\"><a href=\\\"https:\/\/www.penguinlibros.com\/es\/revista-lengua\/podcast\/revista-lengua-podcast-puede-volver-el-fascismo\\\" target=\\\"_blank\\\">la cuna del fascismo<\/a><\/span>. \u00abAhora pertenezco a un mundo, a una sociedad, que ha perdido el sentimiento de la historia, que vive en una horizontalidad temporal en\u00a0la que solo existe el presente -comenta Antonio Scurati-. Nos cuesta sentir nuestra existencia individual como parte de un cuento m\u00e1s amplio y extenso que proviene de nuestros padres, de nuestros abuelos y que despu\u00e9s deben recibir nuestros hijos, aunque cada vez tengamos menos hijos. Tenemos esta necesidad de volver a encontrar este sentimiento con la historia, que, en el fondo, es una p\u00e9rdida de contacto con la realidad. Este tipo de novela, que se basa en documentos, nos da la sensaci\u00f3n de poder restablecer el contacto que hemos 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los aliados descubrieron los campos de concentraci\u00f3n y fueron conscientes del genocidio que se hab\u00eda cometido, todos consideraron que el fascismo jam\u00e1s volver\u00eda a repetirse. Solo hubo un hombre que discrep\u00f3: <span style=\\\"text-decoration: underline;\\\"><a href=\\\"https:\/\/www.penguinlibros.com\/es\/392-thomas-mann\\\" target=\\\"_blank\\\">Thomas Mann<\/a><\/span>. \u00c9l consider\u00f3 que <span style=\\\"text-decoration: underline;\\\"><a href=\\\"https:\/\/www.penguinlibros.com\/es\/revista-lengua\/podcast\/revista-lengua-podcast-puede-volver-el-fascismo\\\" target=\\\"_blank\\\">el fascismo regresar\u00eda, pero envuelto en la bandera de la libertad<\/a><\/span>. Primo Levi, al final de sus d\u00edas, no desestim\u00f3 tampoco que esto pudiera repetirse de nuevo y que este movimiento regresara m\u00e1s adelante oculto bajo otros programas, otros esl\u00f3ganes y otros partidos y hombres. \u00abHay un t\u00e9rmino en alem\u00e1n que habla de la superaci\u00f3n del pasado, pero para superar el pasado, tienes que hacer cuentas con \u00e9l. He escrito estos libros, porque Italia nunca ha hecho esas cuentas con el fascismo, aparte de algunas \u00e9lites intelectuales. Y, para m\u00ed, echar cuentas con el fascismo es relacionarse con ese ayer, asumir nuestras responsabilidades, admitir que hemos sido fascistas, no todos, pero s\u00ed la mayor\u00eda, y de que inventamos el fascismo. En los \u00faltimos setenta a\u00f1os el fascismo se ha contado desde el punto de vista de los antifascistas, de las v\u00edctimas del fascismo, de su violencia, pero no desde los fascistas que han hecho ese da\u00f1o, porque esta naci\u00f3n se fundaba sobre el antifascismo. Pero nosotros, insisto, hemos sido fascistas y no hemos sabido darnos cuenta de ello. Las \u00faltimas elecciones pol\u00edticas en Italia lo demuestran de una manera muy triste. En mi opini\u00f3n, una parte de la actual clase pol\u00edtica no siente la obligaci\u00f3n moral de mirar hacia atr\u00e1s. De hecho, parte de estos pol\u00edticos ni siquiera comparten de forma total los valores del antifascismo en los que se basa mi pa\u00eds ahora\u00bb.<\/p><p>Antonio Scurati emprendi\u00f3 hace unos a\u00f1os la ingente tarea de\u00a0<span style=\\\"text-decoration: underline;\\\"><a href=\\\"https:\/\/www.penguinlibros.com\/es\/4670-antonio-scurati\\\" target=\\\"_blank\\\">abordar la figura de Benito Mussolini<\/a><\/span> desde un punto de vista original: la novelizaci\u00f3n de su biograf\u00eda. Su propuesta, que comporta todos los mecanismos inherentes a la literatura, pero que avanzaba ce\u00f1ida con una escrupulosa fidelidad a los hechos, trajo consigo nuevas etiquetas, como novela documental o novela sin ficci\u00f3n. Este proyecto vio la luz por primera vez en 2008 con <span style=\\\"text-decoration: underline;\\\"><em><a href=\\\"https:\/\/www.penguinlibros.com\/es\/literatura-contemporanea\/14530-ebook-m-el-hijo-del-siglo-9788420437958\\\" target=\\\"_blank\\\">M. El hijo del siglo<\/a><\/em><\/span>, que obtuvo el Premio Strega. Prosigui\u00f3 despu\u00e9s con\u00a0<span style=\\\"text-decoration: underline;\\\"><em><a href=\\\"https:\/\/www.penguinlibros.com\/es\/literatura-contemporanea\/235709-ebook-m-el-hombre-de-la-providencia-9788420456171\\\" target=\\\"_blank\\\">M. El hombre de la providencia<\/a><\/em><\/span> (2021), ganador del Premio Europeo del Libro, y contin\u00faa ahora con <span style=\\\"text-decoration: underline;\\\"><em><a href=\\\"https:\/\/www.penguinlibros.com\/es\/literatura-contemporanea\/317526-ebook-m-los-ultimos-dias-de-europa-9788420471020\\\" target=\\\"_blank\\\">M. Los \u00faltimos d\u00edas de Europa<\/a><\/em><\/span>.<\/p>\",\"section_style\":\"\",\"align\":\"\",\"align_tablet\":\"\",\"align_mobile\":\"\",\"text_color\":\"#1a1a1a\",\"typography_typography\":\"custom\",\"typography_font_size\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"18\"},\"typography_font_size_tablet\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_font_size_mobile\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_font_family\":\"custom\",\"typography_font_family_custom\":\"Fort-Book\",\"typography_font_weight\":\"\",\"typography_text_transform\":\"\",\"typography_font_style\":\"\",\"typography_line_height\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"27\"},\"typography_line_height_tablet\":{\"unit\":\"em\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_line_height_mobile\":{\"unit\":\"em\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_letter_spacing\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_letter_spacing_tablet\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_letter_spacing_mobile\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"\"},\"_section_style\":\"\",\"_margin\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"0\",\"right\":\"0\",\"bottom\":\"0\",\"left\":\"0\",\"isLinked\":false},\"_margin_tablet\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_margin_mobile\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_padding\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_padding_tablet\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_padding_mobile\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_animation\":\"\",\"animation_duration\":\"\",\"_css_classes\":\"\",\"_section_background\":\"\",\"_background_background\":\"\",\"_background_color\":\"\",\"_background_image\":{\"url\":\"\",\"id\":\"\"},\"_background_position\":\"\",\"_background_attachment\":\"\",\"_background_repeat\":\"\",\"_background_size\":\"\",\"_background_video_link\":\"\",\"_background_video_fallback\":{\"url\":\"\",\"id\":\"\"},\"_border_border\":\"\",\"_border_width\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_border_color\":\"\",\"_border_radius\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_box_shadow_box_shadow_type\":\"\",\"_box_shadow_box_shadow\":{\"horizontal\":0,\"vertical\":0,\"blur\":10,\"spread\":0,\"inset\":\"\",\"color\":\"rgba(0,0,0,0.5)\"},\"_section_responsive\":\"\",\"responsive_description\":\"\",\"hide_desktop\":\"\",\"hide_tablet\":\"\",\"hide_mobile\":\"\"},\"defaultEditSettings\":[],\"widgetType\":\"text-editor\",\"editSettings\":{}}],\"editSettings\":{}},{\"id\":\"j8uztgp\",\"elType\":\"column\",\"isInner\":false,\"settings\":{\"_inline_size\":null,\"_column_size\":50,\"section_style\":\"\",\"background_background\":\"\",\"background_color\":\"\",\"background_color_stop\":{\"unit\":\"%\",\"size\":0},\"background_color_b\":\"\",\"background_color_b_stop\":{\"unit\":\"%\",\"size\":100},\"background_gradient_type\":\"linear\",\"background_gradient_angle\":{\"unit\":\"deg\",\"size\":180},\"background_gradient_position\":\"center 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volumen, el \u00faltimo que ha entregado -ya ha anunciado que quedan dos m\u00e1s- ahonda en c\u00f3mo el dictador italiano, el l\u00edder del fascismo, pasar\u00e1 de maestro a aprendiz y claudicar\u00e1 ante <span style=\\\"text-decoration: underline;\\\"><a href=\\\"https:\/\/www.penguinlibros.com\/es\/revista-lengua\/no-ficcion\/george-orwell-mein-kampf-adolf-hitler\\\" target=\\\"_blank\\\">las exigencias de Hitler<\/a><\/span>: aprobar\u00e1 leyes raciales, que no comparte y con las que no est\u00e1 de acuerdo, sum\u00e1ndose al antisemitismo del Tercer Reich, y rubricar\u00e1 su definitiva alianza con la Alemania nazi sum\u00e1ndose a la aventura b\u00e9lica de la Segunda Guerra Mundial. \u00abDesde el principio vi esta obra como una oportunidad para llegar a un amplio n\u00famero de lectores. La literatura implica una forma de conocimiento que es distinto. La novela, que es la forma m\u00e1s democr\u00e1tica que existe para ense\u00f1ar, invita a todas las personas al reino del conocimiento. No exige a quien se acerca a ella licenciaturas o t\u00edtulos de estudio, y tampoco discrimina por sexo. Y tengo que admitir que hasta este momento ha sido un \u00e9xito. En Italia, muchas personas me han escrito para agradecerme la oportunidad que han tenido de poder conocer qu\u00e9 era el fascismo y qui\u00e9n era Mussolini porque no hab\u00edan tenido la posibilidad de haberlo estudiado en la 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cauto y renuente antes de la entrevista, pero animado y de respuesta larga cuando ya est\u00e1 metido en la conversaci\u00f3n, explica que su literatura \u00abes popular, pero no nacional, como reivindicaba Antonio Gramsci\u00bb, y admite que \u00abcomo lector\u00bb, y no solo como \u00abautor\u00bb, le apasiona \u00abesta corriente t\u00edpicamente europea que pone en crisis los g\u00e9neros literarios y que elige como materia la historia pol\u00edtica del siglo XX con sus grandes tragedias, como la Primera y la Segunda Guerra Mundial o los conflictos poscoloniales. Estos escritores que la cultivan no han vivido los acontecimientos de los que hablan, no pertenecen a esa historia, pero su escritura es una manera de apropiarse de ellos. Esto se debe a la reconocida necesidad de historia que tenemos\u00bb.<span style=\\\"white-space: pre;\\\"> <\/span><\/p><p><span style=\\\"white-space: normal;\\\">El novelista recuerda que \u00aben Espa\u00f1a, la dictadura todav\u00eda es reciente y todav\u00eda no ha tenido tiempo de convertirse en historia\u00bb, pero sostiene que ahora mismo lo que une a Espa\u00f1a, Francia o Italia es precisamente <span style=\\\"text-decoration: underline;\\\"><a href=\\\"https:\/\/www.penguinlibros.com\/es\/revista-lengua\/no-ficcion\/sobre-la-mentira-fascista\\\" target=\\\"_blank\\\">\u00abla difusi\u00f3n de populismos\u00bb<\/a><\/span>. \u00abSer\u00eda un error o una exageraci\u00f3n, considerarlos herederos del fascismo hist\u00f3rico. El fascismo ten\u00eda la violencia como uno de sus componentes esenciales, algo que no est\u00e1 presente de ninguna manera a d\u00eda de hoy. Es lo que distingue el populismo actual del fascismo de aquella \u00e9poca. Pero estos populismos heredan, si no el fascismo, s\u00ed el populismo de Mussolini, porque Mussolini no solo fue el fundador del fascismo, tambi\u00e9n fue el inventor del liderazgo populista. En Italia tenemos ahora una fuerte herencia de esto en l\u00edderes de movimientos de extrema izquierda y derecha. 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Scurati reconoce que la realidad italiana actual le deja una viva impresi\u00f3n de desaliento. \u00abMe siento frustrado\u00bb, asegura, antes de explicar el origen de su desasosiego: \u00ab<span style=\\\"text-decoration: underline;\\\"><a href=\\\"https:\/\/elpais.com\/noticias\/elecciones-italia\/\\\" target=\\\"_blank\\\">Estas elecciones en Italia<\/a><\/span> han sido la \u00faltima oportunidad para poder hablar de manera profunda en mi pa\u00eds del fascismo como elemento central de la historia italiana. Es una ocasi\u00f3n que hemos perdido, porque los ganadores de las elecciones, que han iniciado su carrera en un partido declaradamente neofascista, han rechazado hablar de forma abierta acerca del pasado fascista de Italia. Es una l\u00e1stima, un da\u00f1o para nuestro pa\u00eds. No solo por una cuesti\u00f3n moral, que tambi\u00e9n est\u00e1 presente, sino por conseguir a la vez una madurez c\u00edvica y una derecha democr\u00e1tica... me entristece porque nunca he pensado en una victoria de la derecha como una amenaza para la supervivencia de la democracia. Me da miedo, y los hechos demuestran ahora que es una amenaza para la calidad de la vida en nuestro pa\u00eds. Hay una especie de amargura por mi parte en este sentido. Obviamente, tambi\u00e9n hay que subrayarlo, estoy contento de que cerca de un mill\u00f3n de italianos, de lectores de mis libros, y, evidentemente, de muchos m\u00e1s, hayan demostrado este deseo de conocer y confrontar nuestro pasado\u00bb.<\/p><p>Una de las interrogantes que se plantean muchos es de d\u00f3nde proven\u00eda la fuerza arrolladora del fascismo en el siglo XX y de d\u00f3nde surge <span style=\\\"text-decoration: underline;\\\"><a href=\\\"https:\/\/www.penguinlibros.com\/es\/revista-lengua\/no-ficcion\/sobre-la-mentira-fascista\\\" target=\\\"_blank\\\">la seducci\u00f3n de los populismos en la actualidad<\/a><\/span>. Para Antonio Scurati, sin embargo, esa respuesta carece de misterio y es casi evidente. \u00abTanto ayer como hoy, manejan un mensaje que es consolatorio; un mensaje que es un bonito cuento de buenas noches. La realidad es dura; la vida es dura. Pero ellos, en cambio, dicen que pueden resolver todos los problemas de una manera sencilla, aunque luego lo que hacen solo es construir muros y encerrar en c\u00e1rceles a las personas... Esto todav\u00eda funciona\u00bb.<\/p>\",\"section_style\":\"\",\"align\":\"\",\"align_tablet\":\"\",\"align_mobile\":\"\",\"text_color\":\"#1a1a1a\",\"typography_typography\":\"custom\",\"typography_font_size\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"18\"},\"typography_font_size_tablet\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_font_size_mobile\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_font_family\":\"custom\",\"typography_font_family_custom\":\"Fort-Book\",\"typography_font_weight\":\"\",\"typography_text_transform\":\"\",\"typography_font_style\":\"\",\"typography_line_height\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"27\"},\"typography_line_height_tablet\":{\"unit\":\"em\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_line_height_mobile\":{\"unit\":\"em\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_letter_spacing\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_letter_spacing_tablet\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_letter_spacing_mobile\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"\"},\"_section_style\":\"\",\"_margin\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"0\",\"right\":\"0\",\"bottom\":\"58\",\"left\":\"0\",\"isLinked\":false},\"_margin_tablet\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_margin_mobile\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_padding\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_padding_tablet\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_padding_mobile\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_animation\":\"\",\"animation_duration\":\"\",\"_css_classes\":\"\",\"_section_background\":\"\",\"_background_background\":\"\",\"_background_color\":\"\",\"_background_image\":{\"url\":\"\",\"id\":\"\"},\"_background_position\":\"\",\"_background_attachment\":\"\",\"_background_repeat\":\"\",\"_background_size\":\"\",\"_background_video_link\":\"\",\"_background_video_fallback\":{\"url\":\"\",\"id\":\"\"},\"_border_border\":\"\",\"_border_width\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_border_color\":\"\",\"_border_radius\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_box_shadow_box_shadow_type\":\"\",\"_box_shadow_box_shadow\":{\"horizontal\":0,\"vertical\":0,\"blur\":10,\"spread\":0,\"inset\":\"\",\"color\":\"rgba(0,0,0,0.5)\"},\"_section_responsive\":\"\",\"responsive_description\":\"\",\"hide_desktop\":\"\",\"hide_tablet\":\"\",\"hide_mobile\":\"\"},\"defaultEditSettings\":[],\"widgetType\":\"text-editor\",\"editSettings\":{}},{\"id\":\"5wdek6p\",\"elType\":\"widget\",\"isInner\":false,\"settings\":{\"section_editor\":\"\",\"editor\":\"<p>\u00abLa realidad es dura; la vida es dura. Pero ellos [los populistas], en cambio, dicen que pueden resolver todos los problemas de una manera sencilla, aunque luego lo que hacen solo es construir muros y encerrar en c\u00e1rceles a las personas... Esto todav\u00eda funciona\u00bb.<\/p>\",\"section_style\":\"\",\"align\":\"\",\"align_tablet\":\"\",\"align_mobile\":\"\",\"text_color\":\"#000000\",\"typography_typography\":\"custom\",\"typography_font_size\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"40\"},\"typography_font_size_tablet\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_font_size_mobile\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"24\"},\"typography_font_family\":\"custom\",\"typography_font_family_custom\":\"Vollkorn\",\"typography_font_weight\":\"\",\"typography_text_transform\":\"\",\"typography_font_style\":\"\",\"typography_line_height\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"45\"},\"typography_line_height_tablet\":{\"unit\":\"em\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_line_height_mobile\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"30\"},\"typography_letter_spacing\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_letter_spacing_tablet\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_letter_spacing_mobile\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"\"},\"_section_style\":\"\",\"_margin\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"0\",\"right\":\"95\",\"bottom\":\"58\",\"left\":\"95\",\"isLinked\":false},\"_margin_tablet\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"0\",\"right\":\"30\",\"bottom\":\"50\",\"left\":\"30\",\"isLinked\":false},\"_margin_mobile\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_padding\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_padding_tablet\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_padding_mobile\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_animation\":\"\",\"animation_duration\":\"\",\"_css_classes\":\"\",\"_section_background\":\"\",\"_background_background\":\"\",\"_background_color\":\"\",\"_background_image\":{\"url\":\"\",\"id\":\"\"},\"_background_position\":\"\",\"_background_attachment\":\"\",\"_background_repeat\":\"\",\"_background_size\":\"\",\"_background_video_link\":\"\",\"_background_video_fallback\":{\"url\":\"\",\"id\":\"\"},\"_border_border\":\"\",\"_border_width\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_border_color\":\"\",\"_border_radius\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_box_shadow_box_shadow_type\":\"\",\"_box_shadow_box_shadow\":{\"horizontal\":0,\"vertical\":0,\"blur\":10,\"spread\":0,\"inset\":\"\",\"color\":\"rgba(0,0,0,0.5)\"},\"_section_responsive\":\"\",\"responsive_description\":\"\",\"hide_desktop\":\"\",\"hide_tablet\":\"\",\"hide_mobile\":\"\"},\"defaultEditSettings\":[],\"widgetType\":\"text-editor\",\"editSettings\":{}},{\"id\":\"lwmg82u\",\"elType\":\"widget\",\"isInner\":false,\"settings\":{\"section_editor\":\"\",\"editor\":\"<p>Para el novelista, una de las claves descansa en el eficiente manejo de la ret\u00f3rica. Su capacidad para envolver a la gente dentro de una narrativa. \u00ab<span style=\\\"text-decoration: underline;\\\"><a href=\\\"https:\/\/www.penguinlibros.com\/es\/literatura-contemporanea\/317490-libro-m-los-ultimos-dias-de-europa-9788420470771\\\" target=\\\"_blank\\\">En este volumen Mussolini se enfrenta a la Segunda Guerra Mundial<\/a><\/span>, pero entre ver la realidad y proseguir fiel a la ret\u00f3rica que ha cultivado durante a\u00f1os, aunque duda en un momento, al final Mussolini cede y se decanta por el discurso. Reconoce que Italia es un pa\u00eds atrasado, industrial, que no est\u00e1 preparado para la guerra, pero detr\u00e1s tiene veinte a\u00f1os en los que ha repetido que Italia es una gran naci\u00f3n, que Italia es una gran potencia. Echa cuentas con la realidad, pero insiste en la ret\u00f3rica, aunque el precio sean millones de muertos\u00bb. \u00c9l mismo describe este instante crucial para el devenir de Italia y de Europa en <em>M. Los \u00faltimos d\u00edas de Europa.<\/em> Y lo hace con estas palabras: \u00abSu decisi\u00f3n se llama guerra paralela. Como siempre, con la esperanza o la ilusi\u00f3n de que las palabras bauticen las cosas que nombran, el desaf\u00edo pol\u00edtico va acompa\u00f1ado de una invenci\u00f3n ling\u00fc\u00edstica; como siempre, se recurre a un eslogan para la gran ocasi\u00f3n: no con Alemania, no para Alemania, sino para Italia junto a Alemania. Como suele suceder, bajo la apariencia propagand\u00edstica, no hay nada\u00bb.<\/p><p><strong><span style=\\\"white-space: normal;\\\"><span style=\\\"white-space: pre;\\\">LENGUA: <\/span>La ret\u00f3rica sigue siendo esencial.<\/span><\/strong><\/p><p><span style=\\\"white-space: normal;\\\"><strong><span style=\\\"white-space: pre;\\\">Antonio Scurati: <\/span><\/strong>Una de las caracter\u00edsticas de Mussolini, y lo que le hace ser fundador del actual populismo, es esta estrategia pol\u00edtica que solo consiste en tener t\u00e1cticas. Conoce el humor de la gente, alimenta los sentimientos de la naci\u00f3n, alienta las emociones, da alas al miedo, al rencor y el resentimiento. Al mismo tiempo crea una promesa de soluciones f\u00e1ciles. Se reduce la complejidad de la vida moderna y se identifica a un invasor. Hace cien a\u00f1os eran los socialistas. Los propagandistas fascistas aseguraban que eran portadores de la peste asi\u00e1tica. Hoy, en cambio, son los inmigrantes los que, ellos aseguran, crean problemas. Todo se reduce a un enemigo. Este es un mensaje eficaz.<\/span><\/p><p><strong><span style=\\\"white-space: pre;\\\">LENGUA: <\/span>Y ahora tambi\u00e9n tenemos pol\u00edticos que no respetan los derechos humanos.<\/strong><\/p><p><span style=\\\"white-space: normal;\\\"><strong><span style=\\\"white-space: pre;\\\">Antonio Scurati: <\/span><\/strong>Existen esas pulsiones antidemocr\u00e1ticas que llevan a la negaci\u00f3n de los derechos humanos y que hacen retroceder las conquistas de los derechos de las personas que tanto nos han costado. En mi pa\u00eds, de hecho, que ha estado atr\u00e1s en muchos de estos aspectos por razones hist\u00f3ricas y que le ha costado adelantarse en algunos de sus aspectos, creo que va a retroceder de nuevo con este gobierno, que va a invertir este proceso. Me refiero, sobre todo, a las t\u00e1cticas que este gobierno est\u00e1 usando para abordar a la cuesti\u00f3n de los inmigrantes, a la dial\u00e9ctica y la tensi\u00f3n con la Uni\u00f3n Europa y, por supuesto, a la falta de socorro de los n\u00e1ufragos. El respeto a la vida humana misma, desaparece. Podr\u00edamos citar m\u00e1s ejemplos, no solo italianos.<\/span><\/p><p><strong><span style=\\\"white-space: pre;\\\">LENGUA: <\/span>\u00bfC\u00f3mo?<\/strong><\/p><p><span style=\\\"white-space: normal;\\\"><span style=\\\"white-space: pre;\\\"><strong><span>Antonio Scurati:<\/span><\/strong> <span style=\\\"text-decoration: underline;\\\"><a href=\\\"https:\/\/www.penguinlibros.com\/es\/revista-lengua\/la-invasion-rusa\\\" target=\\\"_blank\\\">La lucha de Putin<\/a><\/span><\/span>\u00a0manifiesta numerosas analog\u00edas con la Alemania nazi y la Italia fascista. Sobre todo, en la forma en que afronta la pol\u00edtica internacional a trav\u00e9s de una guerra de exterminio que no se combate solo en los campos de batalla, sino que afecta tambi\u00e9n a la poblaci\u00f3n civil. Hay que tener en cuenta un punto: la democracia es la lucha por la democracia; la historia es la lucha por la historia. Pertenezco a una generaci\u00f3n privilegiada, que, con todos sus defectos, ha heredado la democracia occidental, que ha sido el esfuerzo y el empe\u00f1o de nuestros abuelos. Ahora, cre\u00edamos que la democracia era eterna, que la hab\u00edamos alcanzado de manera plena y, cincuenta a\u00f1os despu\u00e9s, nos hemos dado cuenta de que se nos llama de nuevo a la lucha para salvaguardarla.<\/span><\/p>\",\"section_style\":\"\",\"align\":\"\",\"align_tablet\":\"\",\"align_mobile\":\"\",\"text_color\":\"#1a1a1a\",\"typography_typography\":\"custom\",\"typography_font_size\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"18\"},\"typography_font_size_tablet\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_font_size_mobile\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_font_family\":\"custom\",\"typography_font_family_custom\":\"Fort-Book\",\"typography_font_weight\":\"\",\"typography_text_transform\":\"\",\"typography_font_style\":\"\",\"typography_line_height\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"27\"},\"typography_line_height_tablet\":{\"unit\":\"em\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_line_height_mobile\":{\"unit\":\"em\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_letter_spacing\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_letter_spacing_tablet\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_letter_spacing_mobile\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"\"},\"_section_style\":\"\",\"_margin\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"0\",\"right\":\"0\",\"bottom\":\"40\",\"left\":\"0\",\"isLinked\":false},\"_margin_tablet\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_margin_mobile\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_padding\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_padding_tablet\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_padding_mobile\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_animation\":\"\",\"animation_duration\":\"\",\"_css_classes\":\"\",\"_section_background\":\"\",\"_background_background\":\"\",\"_background_color\":\"\",\"_background_image\":{\"url\":\"\",\"id\":\"\"},\"_background_position\":\"\",\"_background_attachment\":\"\",\"_background_repeat\":\"\",\"_background_size\":\"\",\"_background_video_link\":\"\",\"_background_video_fallback\":{\"url\":\"\",\"id\":\"\"},\"_border_border\":\"\",\"_border_width\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_border_color\":\"\",\"_border_radius\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_box_shadow_box_shadow_type\":\"\",\"_box_shadow_box_shadow\":{\"horizontal\":0,\"vertical\":0,\"blur\":10,\"spread\":0,\"inset\":\"\",\"color\":\"rgba(0,0,0,0.5)\"},\"_section_responsive\":\"\",\"responsive_description\":\"\",\"hide_desktop\":\"\",\"hide_tablet\":\"\",\"hide_mobile\":\"\"},\"defaultEditSettings\":[],\"widgetType\":\"text-editor\",\"editSettings\":{}}],\"editSettings\":{}}],\"editSettings\":{}},{\"id\":\"we7f54r\",\"elType\":\"section\",\"isInner\":false,\"settings\":{\"section_layout\":\"\",\"stretch_section\":\"\",\"layout\":\"boxed\",\"content_width\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"\"},\"gap\":\"default\",\"height\":\"default\",\"custom_height\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":400},\"column_position\":\"middle\",\"content_position\":\"\",\"structure\":\"10\",\"section_background\":\"\",\"background_background\":\"\",\"background_color\":\"\",\"background_color_stop\":{\"unit\":\"%\",\"size\":0},\"background_color_b\":\"\",\"background_color_b_stop\":{\"unit\":\"%\",\"size\":100},\"background_gradient_type\":\"linear\",\"background_gradient_angle\":{\"unit\":\"deg\",\"size\":180},\"background_gradient_position\":\"center 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Scurati explica que \u00ab<span style=\\\"text-decoration: underline;\\\"><a href=\\\"https:\/\/www.penguinlibros.com\/es\/revista-lengua\/no-ficcion\/harari-sandel\\\" target=\\\"_blank\\\">los movimientos populistas refuerzan pulsiones fundamentales del ser y la experiencia humana<\/a><\/span>. No voy a devaluar o a ridiculizar a las personas que encarnan su liderazgo. Ser\u00eda una equivocaci\u00f3n. De hecho, ha sido un error frecuente de los intelectuales de izquierdas se\u00f1alar lo rid\u00edculo que son Mussolini o Trump. Y digo que es una equivocaci\u00f3n porque estos hombres han entendido cosas b\u00e1sicas de la \u00e9poca y de la pol\u00edtica de la sociedad de masas. Estas pulsiones que vuelven a florecer con los populismos forman parte de la condici\u00f3n del hombre y tienen que ver con el instinto de supervivencia. Hay que comprenderlos para saber c\u00f3mo funcionan\u00bb.<\/p><p><strong>LENGUA:\u00a0Entonces, \u00bfhay que contar el fascismo a las nuevas generaciones?<\/strong><\/p><p><span style=\\\"white-space: normal;\\\"><span style=\\\"white-space: pre;\\\"><strong>Antonio Scurati:<\/strong> <\/span>Por supuesto. Y tambi\u00e9n a la siguiente, a la que todav\u00eda no est\u00e1 o que no lee. Algunos creen que saben lo que es el fascismo, pero no lo saben realmente. Hoy tenemos libertad intelectual y moral con respecto a estos temas porque no existe una implicaci\u00f3n existencial. Por eso es posible crear una nueva narraci\u00f3n que no pase a trav\u00e9s de unos filtros ideol\u00f3gicos. Hace diez o quince a\u00f1os me hubiera sido imposible escribir estos libros porque, para la izquierda, hubiera sido un sacrilegio convertir a Mussolini en un personaje. Necesitamos nuevas narraciones para renovar el antifascismo de nuestros padres y abuelos. Un antifascismo que no se quede bajo una bandera pol\u00edtica, una bandera ideol\u00f3gica o una bandera roja. He intentado hacer una aportaci\u00f3n en este sentido pensando en los j\u00f3venes. Muchos de estos j\u00f3venes que ahora son militantes en la pol\u00edtica lo hacen desde el amparo de banderas negras, en grupos que son declaradamente neofascistas. Estos chicos que han sido mis estudiantes en la universidad, cuando les dices que los fascismos han sido malos, te miran y te preguntan por qu\u00e9. Ah\u00ed te das cuenta de que la lucha no ha terminado.<\/span><\/p>\",\"section_style\":\"\",\"align\":\"\",\"align_tablet\":\"\",\"align_mobile\":\"\",\"text_color\":\"#1a1a1a\",\"typography_typography\":\"custom\",\"typography_font_size\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"18\"},\"typography_font_size_tablet\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_font_size_mobile\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_font_family\":\"custom\",\"typography_font_family_custom\":\"Fort-Book\",\"typography_font_weight\":\"\",\"typography_text_transform\":\"\",\"typography_font_style\":\"\",\"typography_line_height\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"27\"},\"typography_line_height_tablet\":{\"unit\":\"em\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_line_height_mobile\":{\"unit\":\"em\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_letter_spacing\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_letter_spacing_tablet\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_letter_spacing_mobile\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"\"},\"_section_style\":\"\",\"_margin\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"0\",\"right\":\"0\",\"bottom\":\"50\",\"left\":\"0\",\"isLinked\":false},\"_margin_tablet\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_margin_mobile\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_padding\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_padding_tablet\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_padding_mobile\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_animation\":\"\",\"animation_duration\":\"\",\"_css_classes\":\"\",\"_section_background\":\"\",\"_background_background\":\"\",\"_background_color\":\"\",\"_background_image\":{\"url\":\"\",\"id\":\"\"},\"_background_position\":\"\",\"_background_attachment\":\"\",\"_background_repeat\":\"\",\"_background_size\":\"\",\"_background_video_link\":\"\",\"_background_video_fallback\":{\"url\":\"\",\"id\":\"\"},\"_border_border\":\"\",\"_border_width\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_border_color\":\"\",\"_border_radius\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_box_shadow_box_shadow_type\":\"\",\"_box_shadow_box_shadow\":{\"horizontal\":0,\"vertical\":0,\"blur\":10,\"spread\":0,\"inset\":\"\",\"color\":\"rgba(0,0,0,0.5)\"},\"_section_responsive\":\"\",\"responsive_description\":\"\",\"hide_desktop\":\"\",\"hide_tablet\":\"\",\"hide_mobile\":\"\"},\"defaultEditSettings\":[],\"widgetType\":\"text-editor\",\"editSettings\":{}},{\"id\":\"qpsvho7\",\"elType\":\"widget\",\"isInner\":false,\"settings\":{\"section_editor\":\"\",\"editor\":\"<p class=\\\"MsoNormal\\\"><strong>OTROS\u00a0CONTENIDOS DE INTER\u00c9S:<\/strong><\/p><p><span style=\\\"text-decoration: underline;\\\"><a href=\\\"https:\/\/www.penguinlibros.com\/es\/revista-lengua\/entrevistas\/beatrice-salvioni-la-malnacida-lumen\\\" target=\\\"_blank\\\">Beatrice Salvioni: literatura contra el fascismo<\/a><\/span><\/p><p><span style=\\\"text-decoration: underline;\\\"><a href=\\\"https:\/\/www.penguinlibros.com\/es\/revista-lengua\/no-ficcion\/Antonio-Scurati-Pablo-Simon-Mussolini-Fascismo\\\" target=\\\"_blank\\\">\u00bfPuede volver el fascismo?<\/a><\/span><\/p><p><span style=\\\"text-decoration: underline;\\\"><a href=\\\"https:\/\/www.penguinlibros.com\/es\/revista-lengua\/no-ficcion\/sobre-la-mentira-fascista\\\" target=\\\"_blank\\\">Sobre la mentira fascista: hacer de las met\u00e1foras una realidad<\/a><\/span><\/p><p><span style=\\\"text-decoration: underline;\\\"><a href=\\\"https:\/\/www.penguinlibros.com\/es\/revista-lengua\/no-ficcion\/george-orwell-mein-kampf-adolf-hitler\\\" target=\\\"_blank\\\">George Orwell sobre \u00abMein Kampf\u00bb: Hitler o el m\u00e1rtir Prometeo<\/a><\/span><\/p><p><span style=\\\"text-decoration: underline;\\\"><a href=\\\"https:\/\/www.penguinlibros.com\/es\/revista-lengua\/la-invasion-rusa\/orlando-figes-sobre-la-rusia-de-putin-esto-es-una-guerra-imperial\\\" target=\\\"_blank\\\">Orlando Figes sobre la Rusia de Putin: \u00abEsto es una guerra imperial\u00bb<\/a><\/span><\/p><p><span style=\\\"text-decoration: underline;\\\"><a href=\\\"https:\/\/www.penguinlibros.com\/es\/revista-lengua\/no-ficcion\/ricardo-gil-lavedra-juicio-a-las-juntas-argentina-1985\\\" target=\\\"_blank\\\">Oslo, 1988: el ep\u00edlogo inesperado del juicio en Argentina de 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15 minutos
Por Javier Ors
Antonio Scurati en su casa en una imagen de archivo de abril de 2018. Crédito: Getty Images.
La fecha de nacimiento de un hombre no revela solo su edad, también nos indica el tiempo del que proviene. Antonio Scurati nació en junio de 1969, un año después del mayo del 68 y de que los tanques tomaran las calles durante la Primavera de Praga. Una fecha que marca el final de aquella revolucionaria y cultural década de los sesenta, pero que también señala el inicio de los denominados Años de Plomo en Italia. Un peculiar contexto de la Guerra Fría que arrancó con las huelgas del llamado Otoño Caliente, prosiguió con el atentado de Piazza Fontana, perpetrado por la ultraderecha, que dejó 17 muertos y alrededor de ochenta heridos, y que culminaría con la fundación de las Brigadas Rojas unos meses después, ya en 1970.
Este periodo, que se extendería hasta finales de los ochenta, resultó convulso, muy ideologizado, pero a la vez provisto de una enorme conciencia política y compromiso intelectual. Resulta tentador preguntarse por la influencia que dejaría todo este ambiente de evidentes complejidades y violencias en las generaciones de muchachos que crecieron a su amparo y que todavía mantenían viva la memoria familiar de su país, que había sido la cuna del fascismo. «Ahora pertenezco a un mundo, a una sociedad, que ha perdido el sentimiento de la historia, que vive en una horizontalidad temporal en la que solo existe el presente -comenta Antonio Scurati-. Nos cuesta sentir nuestra existencia individual como parte de un cuento más amplio y extenso que proviene de nuestros padres, de nuestros abuelos y que después deben recibir nuestros hijos, aunque cada vez tengamos menos hijos. Tenemos esta necesidad de volver a encontrar este sentimiento con la historia, que, en el fondo, es una pérdida de contacto con la realidad. Este tipo de novela, que se basa en documentos, nos da la sensación de poder restablecer el contacto que hemos extraviado».
Cuando los aliados descubrieron los campos de concentración y fueron conscientes del genocidio que se había cometido, todos consideraron que el fascismo jamás volvería a repetirse. Solo hubo un hombre que discrepó: Thomas Mann. Él consideró que el fascismo regresaría, pero envuelto en la bandera de la libertad. Primo Levi, al final de sus días, no desestimó tampoco que esto pudiera repetirse de nuevo y que este movimiento regresara más adelante oculto bajo otros programas, otros eslóganes y otros partidos y hombres. «Hay un término en alemán que habla de la superación del pasado, pero para superar el pasado, tienes que hacer cuentas con él. He escrito estos libros, porque Italia nunca ha hecho esas cuentas con el fascismo, aparte de algunas élites intelectuales. Y, para mí, echar cuentas con el fascismo es relacionarse con ese ayer, asumir nuestras responsabilidades, admitir que hemos sido fascistas, no todos, pero sí la mayoría, y de que inventamos el fascismo. En los últimos setenta años el fascismo se ha contado desde el punto de vista de los antifascistas, de las víctimas del fascismo, de su violencia, pero no desde los fascistas que han hecho ese daño, porque esta nación se fundaba sobre el antifascismo. Pero nosotros, insisto, hemos sido fascistas y no hemos sabido darnos cuenta de ello. Las últimas elecciones políticas en Italia lo demuestran de una manera muy triste. En mi opinión, una parte de la actual clase política no siente la obligación moral de mirar hacia atrás. De hecho, parte de estos políticos ni siquiera comparten de forma total los valores del antifascismo en los que se basa mi país ahora».
Antonio Scurati emprendió hace unos años la ingente tarea de abordar la figura de Benito Mussolini desde un punto de vista original: la novelización de su biografía. Su propuesta, que comporta todos los mecanismos inherentes a la literatura, pero que avanzaba ceñida con una escrupulosa fidelidad a los hechos, trajo consigo nuevas etiquetas, como novela documental o novela sin ficción. Este proyecto vio la luz por primera vez en 2008 con M. El hijo del siglo, que obtuvo el Premio Strega. Prosiguió después con M. El hombre de la providencia (2021), ganador del Premio Europeo del Libro, y continúa ahora con M. Los últimos días de Europa.
El principio del fin
Este volumen, el último que ha entregado -ya ha anunciado que quedan dos más- ahonda en cómo el dictador italiano, el líder del fascismo, pasará de maestro a aprendiz y claudicará ante las exigencias de Hitler: aprobará leyes raciales, que no comparte y con las que no está de acuerdo, sumándose al antisemitismo del Tercer Reich, y rubricará su definitiva alianza con la Alemania nazi sumándose a la aventura bélica de la Segunda Guerra Mundial. «Desde el principio vi esta obra como una oportunidad para llegar a un amplio número de lectores. La literatura implica una forma de conocimiento que es distinto. La novela, que es la forma más democrática que existe para enseñar, invita a todas las personas al reino del conocimiento. No exige a quien se acerca a ella licenciaturas o títulos de estudio, y tampoco discrimina por sexo. Y tengo que admitir que hasta este momento ha sido un éxito. En Italia, muchas personas me han escrito para agradecerme la oportunidad que han tenido de poder conocer qué era el fascismo y quién era Mussolini porque no habían tenido la posibilidad de haberlo estudiado en la escuela».
«Los populismos actuales comparten muchas características con el fascismo: se desenvuelven en las democracias, pero siempre desacreditando el parlamentarismo y afirmando que el parlamento está corrupto, que es ineficiente... siempre actúan desde dentro».
Scurati, cauto y renuente antes de la entrevista, pero animado y de respuesta larga cuando ya está metido en la conversación, explica que su literatura «es popular, pero no nacional, como reivindicaba Antonio Gramsci», y admite que «como lector», y no solo como «autor», le apasiona «esta corriente típicamente europea que pone en crisis los géneros literarios y que elige como materia la historia política del siglo XX con sus grandes tragedias, como la Primera y la Segunda Guerra Mundial o los conflictos poscoloniales. Estos escritores que la cultivan no han vivido los acontecimientos de los que hablan, no pertenecen a esa historia, pero su escritura es una manera de apropiarse de ellos. Esto se debe a la reconocida necesidad de historia que tenemos».
El novelista recuerda que «en España, la dictadura todavía es reciente y todavía no ha tenido tiempo de convertirse en historia», pero sostiene que ahora mismo lo que une a España, Francia o Italia es precisamente «la difusión de populismos». «Sería un error o una exageración, considerarlos herederos del fascismo histórico. El fascismo tenía la violencia como uno de sus componentes esenciales, algo que no está presente de ninguna manera a día de hoy. Es lo que distingue el populismo actual del fascismo de aquella época. Pero estos populismos heredan, si no el fascismo, sí el populismo de Mussolini, porque Mussolini no solo fue el fundador del fascismo, también fue el inventor del liderazgo populista. En Italia tenemos ahora una fuerte herencia de esto en líderes de movimientos de extrema izquierda y derecha. Estos populismos actuales comparten, no obstante, muchas características con el fascismo: se desenvuelven en las democracias, pero siempre desacreditando el parlamentarismo y afirmando que el parlamento está corrupto, que es ineficiente... siempre actúan desde dentro».
Septiembre de 1937. Benito Mussolini y Adolf Hitler saludan a las tropas alemanas en Múnich durante la visita del dictador italiano a Alemania. Junto a ellos está, en la esquina inferior derecha, Rudolf Hess, lugarteniente de Hitler. Crédito: Getty Images.
Antonio Scurati reconoce que la realidad italiana actual le deja una viva impresión de desaliento. «Me siento frustrado», asegura, antes de explicar el origen de su desasosiego: «Estas elecciones en Italia han sido la última oportunidad para poder hablar de manera profunda en mi país del fascismo como elemento central de la historia italiana. Es una ocasión que hemos perdido, porque los ganadores de las elecciones, que han iniciado su carrera en un partido declaradamente neofascista, han rechazado hablar de forma abierta acerca del pasado fascista de Italia. Es una lástima, un daño para nuestro país. No solo por una cuestión moral, que también está presente, sino por conseguir a la vez una madurez cívica y una derecha democrática... me entristece porque nunca he pensado en una victoria de la derecha como una amenaza para la supervivencia de la democracia. Me da miedo, y los hechos demuestran ahora que es una amenaza para la calidad de la vida en nuestro país. Hay una especie de amargura por mi parte en este sentido. Obviamente, también hay que subrayarlo, estoy contento de que cerca de un millón de italianos, de lectores de mis libros, y, evidentemente, de muchos más, hayan demostrado este deseo de conocer y confrontar nuestro pasado».
Una de las interrogantes que se plantean muchos es de dónde provenía la fuerza arrolladora del fascismo en el siglo XX y de dónde surge la seducción de los populismos en la actualidad. Para Antonio Scurati, sin embargo, esa respuesta carece de misterio y es casi evidente. «Tanto ayer como hoy, manejan un mensaje que es consolatorio; un mensaje que es un bonito cuento de buenas noches. La realidad es dura; la vida es dura. Pero ellos, en cambio, dicen que pueden resolver todos los problemas de una manera sencilla, aunque luego lo que hacen solo es construir muros y encerrar en cárceles a las personas... Esto todavía funciona».
«La realidad es dura; la vida es dura. Pero ellos [los populistas], en cambio, dicen que pueden resolver todos los problemas de una manera sencilla, aunque luego lo que hacen solo es construir muros y encerrar en cárceles a las personas... Esto todavía funciona».
Para el novelista, una de las claves descansa en el eficiente manejo de la retórica. Su capacidad para envolver a la gente dentro de una narrativa. «En este volumen Mussolini se enfrenta a la Segunda Guerra Mundial, pero entre ver la realidad y proseguir fiel a la retórica que ha cultivado durante años, aunque duda en un momento, al final Mussolini cede y se decanta por el discurso. Reconoce que Italia es un país atrasado, industrial, que no está preparado para la guerra, pero detrás tiene veinte años en los que ha repetido que Italia es una gran nación, que Italia es una gran potencia. Echa cuentas con la realidad, pero insiste en la retórica, aunque el precio sean millones de muertos». Él mismo describe este instante crucial para el devenir de Italia y de Europa en M. Los últimos días de Europa. Y lo hace con estas palabras: «Su decisión se llama guerra paralela. Como siempre, con la esperanza o la ilusión de que las palabras bauticen las cosas que nombran, el desafío político va acompañado de una invención lingüística; como siempre, se recurre a un eslogan para la gran ocasión: no con Alemania, no para Alemania, sino para Italia junto a Alemania. Como suele suceder, bajo la apariencia propagandística, no hay nada».
LENGUA: La retórica sigue siendo esencial.
Antonio Scurati: Una de las características de Mussolini, y lo que le hace ser fundador del actual populismo, es esta estrategia política que solo consiste en tener tácticas. Conoce el humor de la gente, alimenta los sentimientos de la nación, alienta las emociones, da alas al miedo, al rencor y el resentimiento. Al mismo tiempo crea una promesa de soluciones fáciles. Se reduce la complejidad de la vida moderna y se identifica a un invasor. Hace cien años eran los socialistas. Los propagandistas fascistas aseguraban que eran portadores de la peste asiática. Hoy, en cambio, son los inmigrantes los que, ellos aseguran, crean problemas. Todo se reduce a un enemigo. Este es un mensaje eficaz.
LENGUA: Y ahora también tenemos políticos que no respetan los derechos humanos.
Antonio Scurati: Existen esas pulsiones antidemocráticas que llevan a la negación de los derechos humanos y que hacen retroceder las conquistas de los derechos de las personas que tanto nos han costado. En mi país, de hecho, que ha estado atrás en muchos de estos aspectos por razones históricas y que le ha costado adelantarse en algunos de sus aspectos, creo que va a retroceder de nuevo con este gobierno, que va a invertir este proceso. Me refiero, sobre todo, a las tácticas que este gobierno está usando para abordar a la cuestión de los inmigrantes, a la dialéctica y la tensión con la Unión Europa y, por supuesto, a la falta de socorro de los náufragos. El respeto a la vida humana misma, desaparece. Podríamos citar más ejemplos, no solo italianos.
LENGUA: ¿Cómo?
Antonio Scurati: La lucha de Putin manifiesta numerosas analogías con la Alemania nazi y la Italia fascista. Sobre todo, en la forma en que afronta la política internacional a través de una guerra de exterminio que no se combate solo en los campos de batalla, sino que afecta también a la población civil. Hay que tener en cuenta un punto: la democracia es la lucha por la democracia; la historia es la lucha por la historia. Pertenezco a una generación privilegiada, que, con todos sus defectos, ha heredado la democracia occidental, que ha sido el esfuerzo y el empeño de nuestros abuelos. Ahora, creíamos que la democracia era eterna, que la habíamos alcanzado de manera plena y, cincuenta años después, nos hemos dado cuenta de que se nos llama de nuevo a la lucha para salvaguardarla.
Antonio Scurati en su casa en una imagen de archivo de abril de 2018. Crédito: Getty Images.
Antonio Scurati explica que «los movimientos populistas refuerzan pulsiones fundamentales del ser y la experiencia humana. No voy a devaluar o a ridiculizar a las personas que encarnan su liderazgo. Sería una equivocación. De hecho, ha sido un error frecuente de los intelectuales de izquierdas señalar lo ridículo que son Mussolini o Trump. Y digo que es una equivocación porque estos hombres han entendido cosas básicas de la época y de la política de la sociedad de masas. Estas pulsiones que vuelven a florecer con los populismos forman parte de la condición del hombre y tienen que ver con el instinto de supervivencia. Hay que comprenderlos para saber cómo funcionan».
LENGUA: Entonces, ¿hay que contar el fascismo a las nuevas generaciones?
Antonio Scurati: Por supuesto. Y también a la siguiente, a la que todavía no está o que no lee. Algunos creen que saben lo que es el fascismo, pero no lo saben realmente. Hoy tenemos libertad intelectual y moral con respecto a estos temas porque no existe una implicación existencial. Por eso es posible crear una nueva narración que no pase a través de unos filtros ideológicos. Hace diez o quince años me hubiera sido imposible escribir estos libros porque, para la izquierda, hubiera sido un sacrilegio convertir a Mussolini en un personaje. Necesitamos nuevas narraciones para renovar el antifascismo de nuestros padres y abuelos. Un antifascismo que no se quede bajo una bandera política, una bandera ideológica o una bandera roja. He intentado hacer una aportación en este sentido pensando en los jóvenes. Muchos de estos jóvenes que ahora son militantes en la política lo hacen desde el amparo de banderas negras, en grupos que son declaradamente neofascistas. Estos chicos que han sido mis estudiantes en la universidad, cuando les dices que los fascismos han sido malos, te miran y te preguntan por qué. Ahí te das cuenta de que la lucha no ha terminado.
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