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Mayo del 68 y el fin del consenso

En los sesenta irrumpieron movimientos culturales que pretendían cambiar el mundo. Sus proclamas aparecían en la televisión con música pop de fondo: se presentaban como el inicio de una verdadera revolución. Coronaron cima en 1968, un año de revueltas. De París a Nueva York pasando por Praga, Ciudad de México, Berlín o Londres, los movimientos juveniles prendieron una mecha que, visto ahora con perspectiva, no terminó en el incendio que esperaban: no solo no acabaron con el capitalismo, sino que pasaron a formar parte del sistema y a ser asumidas por la publicidad de las grandes empresas y la propaganda política. Ninguna de las revueltas triunfó, pero aún hoy, más de medio siglo después, seguimos hablando de ellas. En el siguiente texto, líneas extraídas del libro «La revolución divertida» (Debate), el ensayista Ramón González Férriz repasa aquellos agitados meses de rebeliones, contracultura y sueños incumplidos.

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En las siguientes l\u00edneas, el ensayista Ram\u00f3n Gonz\u00e1lez F\u00e9rriz repasa aquellos agitados meses de contracultura y sue\u00f1os incumplidos.","meta_keywords":"Revista LENGUA, Penguin Libros, Mayo del 68, Ram\u00f3n Gonz\u00e1lez F\u00e9rriz","short_content":"<p>En los sesenta irrumpieron movimientos culturales que pretend\u00edan cambiar el mundo. Sus proclamas aparec\u00edan en la televisi\u00f3n con m\u00fasica pop de fondo: se presentaban como el inicio de una verdadera revoluci\u00f3n. Coronaron cima en 1968, un a\u00f1o de revueltas. De Par\u00eds a Nueva York pasando por Praga, Ciudad de M\u00e9xico, Berl\u00edn o Londres, los movimientos juveniles prendieron una mecha que, visto ahora con perspectiva, no termin\u00f3 en el incendio que esperaban: no solo no acabaron con el capitalismo, sino que pasaron a formar parte del sistema y a ser asumidas por la publicidad de las grandes empresas y la propaganda pol\u00edtica. 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mayo de 1968, poco despu\u00e9s de las manifestaciones juveniles que hab\u00edan tenido lugar en Par\u00eds, el primer ministro franc\u00e9s, Georges Pompidou, advirti\u00f3 que \u00abnuestra civilizaci\u00f3n est\u00e1 siendo cuestionada. No el gobierno, no las instituciones, ni siquiera Francia, sino la sociedad moderna materialista y carente de alma\u00bb (ver notas al pie: 1). Tal vez fuera algo exagerado, pero sin duda los muchachos que ocuparon la universidad y las calles parisinas tambi\u00e9n lo cre\u00edan as\u00ed: <a href=\\\"https:\/\/www.penguinlibros.com\/es\/revista-lengua\/no-ficcion\/hector-garcia-barnes-futurofobia-sergio-del-molino\\\" target=\\\"_blank\\\" rel=\\\"noopener\\\"><span style=\\\"text-decoration: underline;\\\">les parec\u00eda que nuestra civilizaci\u00f3n, la civilizaci\u00f3n occidental, estaba esencialmente mal<\/span>.<\/a> Por supuesto, no les gustaba el gobierno, ni la regulaci\u00f3n de las universidades, ni ver coartada su libertad sexual, pero por encima de todo cre\u00edan que el capitalismo de posguerra y la cultura burguesa hab\u00edan acabado con la autonom\u00eda de los individuos y sus m\u00e1s \u00edntimas necesidades de expresi\u00f3n. Las autoridades no comprendieron estas reivindicaciones \u2014no debi\u00f3 de ayudar, sin duda, el lenguaje a veces incomprensible, a veces infantil, de los j\u00f3venes\u2014, y las tomaron por una revuelta comunista. En realidad, no era eso: es cierto que muchos manifestantes simpatizaban con el mao\u00edsmo y su Revoluci\u00f3n Cultural, pero no pretend\u00edan dar un golpe de Estado. Quiz\u00e1 por primera vez en la historia, la revoluci\u00f3n no estaba destinada a expulsar violentamente a los poderosos y sustituirlos. Esos j\u00f3venes \u2014a diferencia de los obreros franceses tambi\u00e9n movilizados en esa \u00e9poca, cuyas reivindicaciones eran cl\u00e1sicamente sindicalistas\u2014 carec\u00edan de un programa, de unas propuestas legislativas, de un modelo de convivencia para el d\u00eda despu\u00e9s. Aunque de haberlo tenido, poco habr\u00eda importado: en las elecciones convocadas a toda prisa por el presidente <span style=\\\"text-decoration: underline;\\\"><a href=\\\"https:\/\/es.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Charles_de_Gaulle\\\" target=\\\"_blank\\\" rel=\\\"noopener\\\">De Gaulle<\/a><\/span>, celebradas la \u00faltima semana de junio, su partido, la Union pour la Def\u00e9nse de la R\u00e9publique, arras\u00f3 y la izquierda se desplom\u00f3. Es cierto, sin embargo, que aquellos j\u00f3venes no estaban muy interesados, al menos entonces, en la pol\u00edtica de 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Estados Unidos, tras a\u00f1os de revueltas estudiantiles galvanizadas por el movimiento contrario a la guerra de Vietnam y por las luchas por los derechos civiles de los negros, un pu\u00f1ado de estudiantes blancos de clase media decidieron articular pol\u00edticamente su movimiento, aunque fuera a modo de parodia. Hartos de la inacci\u00f3n hippy, en 1967 organizaron un partido, el Youth International Party \u2014<span style=\\\"text-decoration: underline;\\\"><a href=\\\"https:\/\/es.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Partido_Internacional_de_la_Juventud\\\" target=\\\"_blank\\\" rel=\\\"noopener\\\">cuyos miembros eran conocidos como yippies<\/a><\/span>\u2014 para luchar contra un sistema que les imped\u00eda satisfacer lo que consideraban aspiraciones leg\u00edtimas de libertad. Ped\u00edan la creaci\u00f3n de instituciones contraculturales \u2014de cooperativas alimentarias a hospitales gratuitos\u2014 que fueran poco a poco socavando el sistema con lo que llamaron la Nueva Naci\u00f3n. \u00abQueremos que todo el mundo controle su propia vida y cuide de los dem\u00e1s. [\u2026] No podemos tolerar actitudes, instituciones y maquinarias cuyo fin es la destrucci\u00f3n de la vida, la acumulaci\u00f3n de beneficios\u00bb (2). Entre las primeras medidas del partido estuvieron la creaci\u00f3n de unos Juegos Ol\u00edmpicos alternativos, afirmar que hab\u00edan contaminado con LSD el agua potable de Chicago y la nominaci\u00f3n de un cerdo llamado <span style=\\\"text-decoration: underline;\\\"><a href=\\\"https:\/\/es.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pigasus_(pol%C3%ADtica)\\\" target=\\\"_blank\\\" rel=\\\"noopener\\\">Pigasus the Inmortal<\/a><\/span> como candidato a las elecciones presidenciales de 1968. Sin embargo, ese a\u00f1o, los hechos en crudo pesaron m\u00e1s que la nueva pol\u00edtica teatral: fueron asesinados el l\u00edder negro Martin Luther King y el candidato presidencial Robert F. Kennedy, estallaron violentos disturbios raciales y la guerra de Vietnam se empantan\u00f3 a\u00fan m\u00e1s. La canci\u00f3n del momento era \u00abHey Jude\u00bb. Y el republicano Richard Nixon gan\u00f3 las 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a\u00f1os antes, en 1965, un barbudo que luego ser\u00eda muy cercano a los yippies, <span style=\\\"text-decoration: underline;\\\"><a href=\\\"https:\/\/es.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Allen_Ginsberg\\\" target=\\\"_blank\\\" rel=\\\"noopener\\\">Allen Ginsberg<\/a><\/span>, fue nombrado Rey de Mayo en Praga. Los checoslovacos segu\u00edan viviendo bajo el comunismo, pero al menos ten\u00edan acceso a algunos peque\u00f1os placeres extravagantemente capitalistas como el rock, los vaqueros o el pelo largo y pudieron disfrutar durante unos d\u00edas de Ginsberg, que durante su visita recit\u00f3 en p\u00fablico oraciones budistas, toc\u00f3 los platillos y logr\u00f3 que la polic\u00eda checoslovaca le deportara del pa\u00eds. Las protestas estudiantiles se fueron sucediendo entre la tolerancia y la represi\u00f3n, y en 1968 el nuevo secretario general del Partido, Dub\u010dek, se vio obligado a presentarse al mismo tiempo como un reformista ante los checoslovacos \u2014con medidas aperturistas conocidas como la Primavera de Praga\u2014 y como <span style=\\\"text-decoration: underline;\\\"><a href=\\\"https:\/\/www.penguinlibros.com\/es\/revista-lengua\/la-invasion-rusa\/victoria-belim-mi-ucrania-urss-euromaidan-rusia\\\" target=\\\"_blank\\\" rel=\\\"noopener\\\">un hombre fuerte ante los rusos<\/a><\/span>. Sin embargo, el 20 de agosto las tropas sovi\u00e9ticas y del resto del Pacto de Varsovia invadieron a su aliado por sus excesos occidentalizadores entre las protestas de j\u00f3venes que se pon\u00edan a los pies de los tanques extranjeros para tratar de proteger las reformas del \u00absocialismo con rostro humano\u00bb. Despu\u00e9s de muertes y de negociaciones, la parte checoslovaca y la moscovita firmaron un documento que era de hecho una vuelta a lo peor de la dictadura, pese a que las manifestaciones en contra de la dominaci\u00f3n sovi\u00e9tica no se detuvieron. Al final, Dub\u010dek fue sustituido en su puesto por Hus\u00e1k, encargado de \u00abnormalizar\u00bb \u2014es decir, endurecer\u2014 el comunismo checoslovaco: la econom\u00eda se centraliz\u00f3 de nuevo, se acab\u00f3 con una t\u00edmida libertad de prensa y la cultura juvenil volvi\u00f3 a ser contrarrevolucionaria. En su obra de teatro<em> Rock'n'Roll,<\/em> el dramaturgo brit\u00e1nico de origen checoslovaco Tom Stoppard le hace decir a la joven Lenka que, con el tiempo, \u00abHaz el amor y no la guerra\u00bb acabar\u00eda siendo un lema m\u00e1s importante que \u00abTrabajadores del mundo, un\u00edos\u00bb. <span style=\\\"text-decoration: underline;\\\"><a href=\\\"https:\/\/www.penguinlibros.com\/es\/revista-lengua\/la-invasion-rusa\/anne-applebaum-ucrania-entre-este-y-oeste\\\" target=\\\"_blank\\\" rel=\\\"noopener\\\">Checoslovaquia sigui\u00f3 ocupada por los sovi\u00e9ticos hasta 1990<\/a><\/span>.\u00a0<\/p>\",\"section_style\":\"\",\"align\":\"\",\"align_tablet\":\"\",\"align_mobile\":\"\",\"text_color\":\"#1a1a1a\",\"typography_typography\":\"custom\",\"typography_font_size\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"18\"},\"typography_font_size_tablet\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_font_size_mobile\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_font_family\":\"custom\",\"typography_font_family_custom\":\"Fort-Book\",\"typography_font_weight\":\"\",\"typography_text_transform\":\"\",\"typography_font_style\":\"\",\"typography_line_height\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"27\"},\"typography_line_height_tablet\":{\"unit\":\"em\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_line_height_mobile\":{\"unit\":\"em\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_letter_spacing\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_letter_spacing_tablet\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_letter_spacing_mobile\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"\"},\"_section_style\":\"\",\"_margin\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"0\",\"right\":\"0\",\"bottom\":\"58\",\"left\":\"0\",\"isLinked\":false},\"_margin_tablet\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_margin_mobile\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_padding\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_padding_tablet\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_padding_mobile\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_animation\":\"\",\"animation_duration\":\"\",\"_css_classes\":\"\",\"_section_background\":\"\",\"_background_background\":\"\",\"_background_color\":\"\",\"_background_image\":{\"url\":\"\",\"id\":\"\"},\"_background_position\":\"\",\"_background_attachment\":\"\",\"_background_repeat\":\"\",\"_background_size\":\"\",\"_background_video_link\":\"\",\"_background_video_fallback\":{\"url\":\"\",\"id\":\"\"},\"_border_border\":\"\",\"_border_width\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_border_color\":\"\",\"_border_radius\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_box_shadow_box_shadow_type\":\"\",\"_box_shadow_box_shadow\":{\"horizontal\":0,\"vertical\":0,\"blur\":10,\"spread\":0,\"inset\":\"\",\"color\":\"rgba(0,0,0,0.5)\"},\"_section_responsive\":\"\",\"responsive_description\":\"\",\"hide_desktop\":\"\",\"hide_tablet\":\"\",\"hide_mobile\":\"\"},\"defaultEditSettings\":[],\"widgetType\":\"text-editor\",\"editSettings\":{}},{\"id\":\"4lwr48f\",\"elType\":\"widget\",\"isInner\":false,\"settings\":{\"section_editor\":\"\",\"editor\":\"<p>(...) no les gustaba el gobierno, ni la regulaci\u00f3n de las universidades, ni ver coartada su libertad sexual, pero por encima de todo cre\u00edan que el capitalismo de posguerra y la cultura burguesa hab\u00edan acabado con la autonom\u00eda de los 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gozo de la rebeld\u00eda justa\u00bb: \u00e9se fue, afirma Carlos Monsiv\u00e1is, el rasgo principal del 68 mexicano. Lo que hab\u00eda empezado como una bronca entre pandillas estudiantiles acab\u00f3, tras la brutal represi\u00f3n policial, en un alzamiento poco articulado pero que reivindicaba un\u00e1nimemente mayores libertades ante el r\u00e9gimen del PRI, un partido pol\u00edtico de ideolog\u00eda confusa que llevaba en el poder desde 1929 gracias, en parte, a los fraudes electorales. Dice Monsiv\u00e1is: \u00abA los preparatorianos [estudiantes de bachillerato] que enfrentan a la polic\u00eda no los impulsan el Mayo franc\u00e9s, las lecturas de Herbert Marcuse, los razonamientos del Che Guevara sobre el Hombre Nuevo, las lecciones de los estudiantes de Norteam\u00e9rica (el Free Speech Movement de Berkeley, con su batalla por el derecho a decir \\\"Fuck You\\\"), y las repercusiones de la doctrina marxista, aunque s\u00ed influye en ellos, pero no de modo doctrinario, el fastidio ante la monumentalidad y la represi\u00f3n pri\u00edstas. Estas contiendas vienen de la decisi\u00f3n simult\u00e1nea del no dejarse, de la furia de las personas, de grupos, de peque\u00f1as muchedumbres en aumento que, con audacia asombrosa, renuncian a uno de los rasgos constitutivos de la sociedad, la paciencia hist\u00f3rica ante la represi\u00f3n\u00bb (3). El 2 de octubre, <span style=\\\"text-decoration: underline;\\\"><a href=\\\"https:\/\/es.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Masacre_de_Tlatelolco\\\" target=\\\"_blank\\\" rel=\\\"noopener\\\">francotiradores del ej\u00e9rcito dispararon contra los manifestantes<\/a><\/span> reunidos en la plaza de las Tres Culturas y mataron a un n\u00famero indeterminado de personas, alrededor de setenta probablemente. Diez d\u00edas m\u00e1s tarde, se celebr\u00f3 en la misma Ciudad de M\u00e9xico la inauguraci\u00f3n de la llamada Olimpiada de la Paz. El PRI sigui\u00f3 en el poder hasta el a\u00f1o 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Yippies (miembros del Partido Internacional de la Juventud) marchan por la Sexta Avenida de Manhattan portando a Pigasus the Inmortal, su candidato a la presidencia. 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style=\\\"text-decoration: underline;\\\"><a href=\\\"https:\/\/infoactualidad.ucm.es\/index.php\/reportajes\/954-el-ano-en-que-el-mundo-se-levanto-por-la-libertad#:~:text=1968%20fue%20uno%20de%20los,de%20M%C3%A9xico%2C%20que%20se%20produjo\\\" target=\\\"_blank\\\" rel=\\\"noopener\\\">1968 fue un a\u00f1o de revueltas<\/a><\/span>. \u00abDonde hab\u00eda comunismo \u2014dice Mark Kurlansky\u2014 la gente se rebel\u00f3 contra el comunismo; donde hab\u00eda capitalismo, se rebel\u00f3 contra \u00e9l\u00bb (4). Sin embargo, ninguna de estas revueltas triunf\u00f3. Su efecto pol\u00edtico inmediato no fue irrelevante, pero todos los sistemas institucionales contra los que se levant\u00f3 la juventud ese a\u00f1o siguieron en su sitio muchos a\u00f1os m\u00e1s. Eso fue posible, en buena medida, por la desorganizaci\u00f3n y la inconsistencia ideol\u00f3gica de los rebeldes; y tambi\u00e9n, no hay que olvidarlo, porque eran una minor\u00eda en sus sociedades. Pero, sobre todo, por la fortaleza de los reg\u00edmenes.\u00a0<\/p><p>El mundo en 1968 \u2014y esto excluye a Checoslovaquia, que sin embargo no era un pa\u00eds pobre comparado con el resto del bloque sovi\u00e9tico\u2014 era razonablemente pr\u00f3spero. Tras <span style=\\\"text-decoration: underline;\\\"><a href=\\\"https:\/\/www.penguinlibros.com\/es\/revista-lengua\/no-ficcion\/svetlana-alexievich-premio-nobel-literatura\\\" target=\\\"_blank\\\" rel=\\\"noopener\\\">la cat\u00e1strofe de la Segunda Guerra Mundial<\/a><\/span>, la mayor parte de los pa\u00edses occidentales hab\u00edan alcanzado un consenso pol\u00edtico que ten\u00eda sus ra\u00edces en la socialdemocracia y la democracia cristiana en Europa, y en el New Deal en Estados Unidos: el Estado ten\u00eda el derecho y la obligaci\u00f3n de intervenir en la econom\u00eda para compensar aquellos aspectos en los que el mercado pareciera ser ineficiente. Los creadores de ese consenso no eran pol\u00edticos que hoy considerar\u00edamos exactamente progresistas \u2014pensemos en Roosevelt o Truman en Estados Unidos, en Attlee en Gran Breta\u00f1a o en De Gaulle en Francia\u2014, sino hombres de <span style=\\\"text-decoration: underline;\\\"><a href=\\\"https:\/\/www.penguinlibros.com\/es\/revista-lengua\/no-ficcion\/harari-sandel\\\" target=\\\"_blank\\\" rel=\\\"noopener\\\">instinto conservador y elitista<\/a><\/span> que se hab\u00edan horrorizado ante la inestabilidad social que hab\u00edan provocado las guerras, y que se dieron cuenta de que el mejor modo de anular toda posibilidad de un retorno a ese infierno era reducir la desigualdad, el desempleo y la inflaci\u00f3n al mismo tiempo que se manten\u00eda un gran espacio para el mercado y las libertades p\u00fablicas, aunque fuera bajo una estricta regulaci\u00f3n estatal.\u00a0<\/p><p>Ese consenso dar\u00eda pie a lo que Eric Hobsbawm llam\u00f3 los A\u00f1os de Oro: una \u00e9poca de relativa paz y estabilidad en la que los estados del mundo occidental decidieron fortalecerse y proveer \u2014cada uno en la medida de sus posibilidades y su cultura pol\u00edtica\u2014 de sistemas de transporte p\u00fablico, subsidios al desempleo, viviendas de protecci\u00f3n oficial, sanidad subvencionada, acceso a la cultura, l\u00edmites de precios, protecciones laborales y mecanismos de ascenso social a todos los ciudadanos. Los resultados fueron asombrosos. La brecha entre ricos y pobres disminuy\u00f3 en Gran Breta\u00f1a y Estados Unidos, en Francia el empleo se volvi\u00f3 seguro, Alemania se levant\u00f3 de las dos derrotas de las guerras mundiales en muy poco tiempo y en Escandinavia y Canad\u00e1 se forjaron sociedades igualitarias y libres.<\/p><p>\u00bfPor qu\u00e9 los j\u00f3venes sesentayochistas se hartaron de este sistema que tan bien parec\u00eda funcionar y que, sin duda, no ten\u00eda comparaci\u00f3n posible en la historia en t\u00e9rminos de justicia y bienestar? Occidente, naturalmente, distaba de ser perfecto. En Estados Unidos, la segregaci\u00f3n racial segu\u00eda siendo un hecho y el pa\u00eds estaba empantanado en una guerra mort\u00edfera, dif\u00edcil de comprender e impopular en casi todos los rincones del mundo. Adem\u00e1s de eso, los j\u00f3venes se sent\u00edan aislados del capitalismo aparentemente id\u00edlico de los a\u00f1os cincuenta, de sus rigideces e hipocres\u00edas.\u00a0<span style=\\\"text-decoration: underline;\\\"><a href=\\\"https:\/\/www.penguinlibros.com\/es\/revista-lengua\/no-ficcion\/gunter-grass-alemania-diarios\\\" target=\\\"_blank\\\" rel=\\\"noopener\\\">En la Alemania Federal<\/a><\/span>, muchos j\u00f3venes sent\u00edan que los responsables de la hecatombe de la Segunda Guerra Mundial no hab\u00edan acabado de pagar el precio de sus atrocidades, y que la resoluci\u00f3n del conflicto,\u00a0<span style=\\\"text-decoration: underline;\\\"><a href=\\\"https:\/\/www.penguinlibros.com\/es\/revista-lengua\/no-ficcion\/muro-berlin-1989-gorbachov-taubman\\\" target=\\\"_blank\\\" rel=\\\"noopener\\\">con la partici\u00f3n del pa\u00eds bajo el mandato de potencias extranjeras<\/a><\/span>, era una humillaci\u00f3n que no cerraba las heridas; no pocos de ellos cre\u00edan que esto s\u00ed hab\u00eda quedado resuelto en la comunista Rep\u00fablica Democr\u00e1tica de Alemania. 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embargo, estas circunstancias pol\u00edticas no fueron las \u00fanicas que dieron pie a los alzamientos del 68. De gran importancia fue la explosi\u00f3n demogr\u00e1fica de la posguerra. \u00abEuropa, como resultaba patente, estaba llena de j\u00f3venes\u00bb, afirma Tony Judt (5). A consecuencia de ello, en pa\u00edses como el Reino Unido, Italia o Francia, la edad de salida de la educaci\u00f3n obligatoria se elev\u00f3. Los institutos y las universidades, tradicionalmente s\u00f3lo accesibles para las \u00e9lites o estudiantes especialmente dotados receptores de becas, tuvieron que abrirse a j\u00f3venes de todas las clases sociales, con lo que, como se\u00f1ala Judt, la brecha entre esos nuevos estudiantes y sus padres de origen rural u obrero se ampli\u00f3 enormemente. Tambi\u00e9n estaba la eclosi\u00f3n de la cultura pop: aunque pareciera una fr\u00edvola sucesi\u00f3n de grupos musicales ruidosos y ropa un poco rid\u00edcula, el pop estaba abriendo formas de expresi\u00f3n a una juventud que, m\u00e1s all\u00e1 de estar airada pol\u00edticamente, ve\u00eda en la cultura de masas una posibilidad de liberarse de las rigideces de la tradici\u00f3n paternalista \u2014no s\u00f3lo de las familias, tambi\u00e9n del Estado\u2014, porque, casi inevitablemente, los adultos parec\u00edan incapaces de encontrarle otro significado que el simple hedonismo o el abierto mal gusto.<\/p>\",\"section_style\":\"\",\"align\":\"\",\"align_tablet\":\"\",\"align_mobile\":\"\",\"text_color\":\"#1a1a1a\",\"typography_typography\":\"custom\",\"typography_font_size\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"18\"},\"typography_font_size_tablet\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_font_size_mobile\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_font_family\":\"custom\",\"typography_font_family_custom\":\"Fort-Book\",\"typography_font_weight\":\"\",\"typography_text_transform\":\"\",\"typography_font_style\":\"\",\"typography_line_height\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"27\"},\"typography_line_height_tablet\":{\"unit\":\"em\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_line_height_mobile\":{\"unit\":\"em\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_letter_spacing\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_letter_spacing_tablet\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_letter_spacing_mobile\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"\"},\"_section_style\":\"\",\"_margin\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"0\",\"right\":\"0\",\"bottom\":\"58\",\"left\":\"0\",\"isLinked\":false},\"_margin_tablet\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_margin_mobile\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_padding\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_padding_tablet\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_padding_mobile\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_animation\":\"\",\"animation_duration\":\"\",\"_css_classes\":\"\",\"_section_background\":\"\",\"_background_background\":\"\",\"_background_color\":\"\",\"_background_image\":{\"url\":\"\",\"id\":\"\"},\"_background_position\":\"\",\"_background_attachment\":\"\",\"_background_repeat\":\"\",\"_background_size\":\"\",\"_background_video_link\":\"\",\"_background_video_fallback\":{\"url\":\"\",\"id\":\"\"},\"_border_border\":\"\",\"_border_width\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_border_color\":\"\",\"_border_radius\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_box_shadow_box_shadow_type\":\"\",\"_box_shadow_box_shadow\":{\"horizontal\":0,\"vertical\":0,\"blur\":10,\"spread\":0,\"inset\":\"\",\"color\":\"rgba(0,0,0,0.5)\"},\"_section_responsive\":\"\",\"responsive_description\":\"\",\"hide_desktop\":\"\",\"hide_tablet\":\"\",\"hide_mobile\":\"\"},\"defaultEditSettings\":[],\"widgetType\":\"text-editor\",\"editSettings\":{}},{\"id\":\"rzgcxi0\",\"elType\":\"widget\",\"isInner\":false,\"settings\":{\"section_editor\":\"\",\"editor\":\"<p>1968 fue un a\u00f1o de revueltas. Sin embargo, ninguna de estas revueltas triunf\u00f3. Su efecto pol\u00edtico inmediato no fue irrelevante, pero todos los sistemas institucionales contra los que se levant\u00f3 la juventud ese a\u00f1o siguieron en su sitio muchos a\u00f1os m\u00e1s.\u00a0<\/p>\",\"section_style\":\"\",\"align\":\"\",\"align_tablet\":\"\",\"align_mobile\":\"\",\"text_color\":\"#000000\",\"typography_typography\":\"custom\",\"typography_font_size\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"40\"},\"typography_font_size_tablet\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_font_size_mobile\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"24\"},\"typography_font_family\":\"custom\",\"typography_font_family_custom\":\"Vollkorn\",\"typography_font_weight\":\"\",\"typography_text_transform\":\"\",\"typography_font_style\":\"\",\"typography_line_height\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"45\"},\"typography_line_height_tablet\":{\"unit\":\"em\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_line_height_mobile\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"30\"},\"typography_letter_spacing\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_letter_spacing_tablet\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_letter_spacing_mobile\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"\"},\"_section_style\":\"\",\"_margin\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"0\",\"right\":\"95\",\"bottom\":\"58\",\"left\":\"95\",\"isLinked\":false},\"_margin_tablet\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"0\",\"right\":\"30\",\"bottom\":\"50\",\"left\":\"30\",\"isLinked\":false},\"_margin_mobile\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_padding\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_padding_tablet\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_padding_mobile\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_animation\":\"\",\"animation_duration\":\"\",\"_css_classes\":\"\",\"_section_background\":\"\",\"_background_background\":\"\",\"_background_color\":\"\",\"_background_image\":{\"url\":\"\",\"id\":\"\"},\"_background_position\":\"\",\"_background_attachment\":\"\",\"_background_repeat\":\"\",\"_background_size\":\"\",\"_background_video_link\":\"\",\"_background_video_fallback\":{\"url\":\"\",\"id\":\"\"},\"_border_border\":\"\",\"_border_width\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_border_color\":\"\",\"_border_radius\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_box_shadow_box_shadow_type\":\"\",\"_box_shadow_box_shadow\":{\"horizontal\":0,\"vertical\":0,\"blur\":10,\"spread\":0,\"inset\":\"\",\"color\":\"rgba(0,0,0,0.5)\"},\"_section_responsive\":\"\",\"responsive_description\":\"\",\"hide_desktop\":\"\",\"hide_tablet\":\"\",\"hide_mobile\":\"\"},\"defaultEditSettings\":[],\"widgetType\":\"text-editor\",\"editSettings\":{}},{\"id\":\"8vd26zt\",\"elType\":\"widget\",\"isInner\":false,\"settings\":{\"section_editor\":\"\",\"editor\":\"<p>Pero adem\u00e1s de eso, o quiz\u00e1 a consecuencia de eso, se estaba empezando a producir un cisma en la izquierda. Tradicionalmente, al menos en Europa, la izquierda se hab\u00eda considerado la representaci\u00f3n natural del proletariado. El comunismo franc\u00e9s y el italiano, el laborismo brit\u00e1nico, los partidos de los trabajadores de Holanda y B\u00e9lgica, y hasta el Partido Comunista espa\u00f1ol, cre\u00edan encarnar los intereses de los trabajadores industriales, aunque \u00e9stos no fueran necesariamente, en su mayor\u00eda, comunistas, o siquiera de izquierdas. Sin embargo, esos partidos, que fiaban su suerte electoral a la fidelidad de ese proletariado \u2014no en Espa\u00f1a, naturalmente, donde el PC era clandestino y no hab\u00eda elecciones libres\u2014, debieron hacer frente al principio del declive de los trabajadores industriales como clase y, por lo tanto, de los intereses tradicionalmente asociados a ella. Sin duda, los obreros urbanos de grandes f\u00e1bricas segu\u00edan siendo claves para la izquierda oficial, pero cada vez se produc\u00edan m\u00e1s nuevas versiones de la agenda progresista, singularmente en las universidades. Fuera por la fascinaci\u00f3n por los movimientos revolucionarios del Tercer Mundo, o por la relectura un poco exc\u00e9ntrica de los escritos de Marx y el psicoan\u00e1lisis, muchos j\u00f3venes universitarios \u2014algunos de ellos, naturalmente, de extracci\u00f3n obrera, pero muchos m\u00e1s de clase media con una idea s\u00f3lo literaria de la precariedad de los trabajadores\u2014 empezaron a olvidarse de las reivindicaciones posibilistas de la tradici\u00f3n socialdem\u00f3crata o hasta la comunista occidental y, llevados por complejas elaboraciones te\u00f3ricas que no pod\u00eda comprender ning\u00fan pe\u00f3n, a exigir m\u00e1s libertad. Algunos, sin duda, quer\u00edan s\u00f3lo eso; otros, como se tem\u00eda Pompidou, quer\u00edan acabar con los fundamentos de la civilizaci\u00f3n occidental, fuera para arrastrarla a modelos revolucionarios <span style=\\\"text-decoration: underline;\\\"><a href=\\\"https:\/\/www.penguinlibros.com\/es\/revista-lengua\/no-ficcion\/revolucion-cuba-patricio-fernandez\\\" target=\\\"_blank\\\" rel=\\\"noopener\\\">como el cubano<\/a><\/span> o el chino, o para abocarla a un comunitarismo maximalista y no violento. Tras las algaradas del mayo parisiense, Georges Marchais, l\u00edder del Partido Comunista Franc\u00e9s, les llam\u00f3, simplemente,<em> fils \u00e0 papa,<\/em> hijos de pap\u00e1. 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julio de 1967. 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Alan Ginsberg interpretando un canto indio durante uno de sus recitales en Hyde Park. Cr\u00e9dito: Getty 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embargo, no en todos los pa\u00edses pudo decirse que aquello hubiera sido una fiesta. En 1968, ETA cometi\u00f3 su primer asesinato reconocido, el del guardia civil Jos\u00e9 \u00c1ngel Pardines Acay, y poco despu\u00e9s asesin\u00f3 al polic\u00eda vasco Melit\u00f3n Manzanas. En 1969, en Italia apareci\u00f3 Lotta Continua, un grupo surgido de las manifestaciones estudiantiles y obreras del a\u00f1o anterior y de car\u00e1cter marxista-leninista que en 1972 asesin\u00f3 al comisario de polic\u00eda de Mil\u00e1n Luigi Calabresi. En 1967, en Alemania la polic\u00eda mat\u00f3 al estudiante Benno Ohnesorg durante una manifestaci\u00f3n celebrada en Berl\u00edn contra <span style=\\\"text-decoration: underline;\\\"><a href=\\\"https:\/\/www.penguinlibros.com\/us\/revista-lengua\/no-ficcion\/revolucion-islamica-iran-1979-el-jardin-del-fin\\\" target=\\\"_blank\\\" rel=\\\"noopener\\\">el sha de Ir\u00e1n<\/a><\/span>, se produjeron varias muertes en los incidentes de las semanas siguientes y grupos cada vez m\u00e1s extremistas, muchos de ellos mao\u00edstas, recibieron financiaci\u00f3n del Bloque Comunista para cometer actos revolucionarios; a partir de 1970, la Fracci\u00f3n del Ej\u00e9rcito Rojo \u2014conocida como Baader Meinhof por los apellidos de dos de sus l\u00edderes\u2014 asaltar\u00eda bancos para comprar armas y atacar\u00eda instalaciones militares y medios de comunicaci\u00f3n.\u00a0<\/p><p>\u00abLos sesenta acabaron mal en todas partes \u2014afirma Tony Judt\u2014. El cierre del largo ciclo de crecimiento y prosperidad de la posguerra disip\u00f3 la ret\u00f3rica y los proyectos de la nueva izquierda; el \u00e9nfasis optimista en la alienaci\u00f3n postindustrial y la despersonalizaci\u00f3n de la vida moderna pronto se ver\u00eda desplazado por una renovada atenci\u00f3n hacia los empleos y salarios\u00bb (6). Por lo dem\u00e1s, los logros reformistas fueron pocos: se extendi\u00f3 la reducci\u00f3n de la edad m\u00ednima para el voto a los dieciocho a\u00f1os y las universidades trataron de asumir algunas de las reclamaciones estudiantiles, pero no mucho m\u00e1s, por el momento. Los logros pol\u00edticos de los a\u00f1os sesenta llegar\u00edan m\u00e1s tarde, y lo har\u00edan casi siempre por medios inesperados.<\/p><p><br \/><br \/>Notas:<\/p><p class=\\\"MsoNormal\\\">1. Citado en Bruce J. Schulman, <em>The Seventies,<\/em> Da Capo Press, Nueva York, 2002, p. 1. <br \/>2. The New Yippie Book Collective, eds., <em>Blacklisted News: Secret Histories from Chicago to 1984,<\/em> Bleecker Publishing, Nueva York, 1983, p. 514, citado en en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Youth_International_Party. <br \/>3. Carlos Monsiv\u00e1is, <em>El 68. La tradici\u00f3n de la resistencia,<\/em> Bolsillo ERA, M\u00e9xico, 2008, p. 84. <br \/>4. Mark Kurlansky, <em>1968. El a\u00f1o que conmocion\u00f3 al mundo,<\/em> Destino, Barcelona, 2005, p. 17. <br \/>5. Tony Judt, <em>Posguerra,<\/em> Taurus, Madrid, 2006, p. 570. <br \/>6. <em>Ibid.,<\/em> p. 651.<\/p>\",\"section_style\":\"\",\"align\":\"\",\"align_tablet\":\"\",\"align_mobile\":\"\",\"text_color\":\"#1a1a1a\",\"typography_typography\":\"custom\",\"typography_font_size\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"18\"},\"typography_font_size_tablet\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_font_size_mobile\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_font_family\":\"custom\",\"typography_font_family_custom\":\"Fort-Book\",\"typography_font_weight\":\"\",\"typography_text_transform\":\"\",\"typography_font_style\":\"\",\"typography_line_height\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"27\"},\"typography_line_height_tablet\":{\"unit\":\"em\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_line_height_mobile\":{\"unit\":\"em\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_letter_spacing\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_letter_spacing_tablet\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"\"},\"typography_letter_spacing_mobile\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"size\":\"\"},\"_section_style\":\"\",\"_margin\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"0\",\"right\":\"0\",\"bottom\":\"58\",\"left\":\"0\",\"isLinked\":false},\"_margin_tablet\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_margin_mobile\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_padding\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_padding_tablet\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_padding_mobile\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_animation\":\"\",\"animation_duration\":\"\",\"_css_classes\":\"\",\"_section_background\":\"\",\"_background_background\":\"\",\"_background_color\":\"\",\"_background_image\":{\"url\":\"\",\"id\":\"\"},\"_background_position\":\"\",\"_background_attachment\":\"\",\"_background_repeat\":\"\",\"_background_size\":\"\",\"_background_video_link\":\"\",\"_background_video_fallback\":{\"url\":\"\",\"id\":\"\"},\"_border_border\":\"\",\"_border_width\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_border_color\":\"\",\"_border_radius\":{\"unit\":\"px\",\"top\":\"\",\"right\":\"\",\"bottom\":\"\",\"left\":\"\",\"isLinked\":true},\"_box_shadow_box_shadow_type\":\"\",\"_box_shadow_box_shadow\":{\"horizontal\":0,\"vertical\":0,\"blur\":10,\"spread\":0,\"inset\":\"\",\"color\":\"rgba(0,0,0,0.5)\"},\"_section_responsive\":\"\",\"responsive_description\":\"\",\"hide_desktop\":\"\",\"hide_tablet\":\"\",\"hide_mobile\":\"\"},\"defaultEditSettings\":[],\"widgetType\":\"text-editor\",\"editSettings\":{}},{\"id\":\"zdb8aim\",\"elType\":\"widget\",\"isInner\":false,\"settings\":{\"section_editor\":\"\",\"editor\":\"<p class=\\\"MsoNormal\\\"><strong>OTROS\u00a0CONTENIDOS DE INTER\u00c9S:<\/strong><\/p><p><span style=\\\"text-decoration: underline;\\\"><a href=\\\"https:\/\/www.penguinlibros.com\/es\/revista-lengua\/entrevistas\/benito-mussolini-antonio-scurati\\\" target=\\\"_blank\\\" rel=\\\"noopener\\\">Mussolini para las masas: Scurati y las cuentas con el pasado<\/a><\/span><\/p><p><span style=\\\"text-decoration: underline;\\\"><span style=\\\"text-decoration: underline;\\\"><\/span><\/span><\/p><p><span style=\\\"text-decoration: underline;\\\"><a href=\\\"https:\/\/www.penguinlibros.com\/es\/revista-lengua\/no-ficcion\/victor-jara-un-canto-vivo-mario-amoros\\\" target=\\\"_blank\\\" rel=\\\"noopener\\\">V\u00edctor Jara, un canto vivo<\/a><\/span><\/p><p><span style=\\\"text-decoration: underline;\\\"><a href=\\\"https:\/\/www.penguinlibros.com\/es\/revista-lengua\/no-ficcion\/joan-didion-california\\\" target=\\\"_blank\\\" rel=\\\"noopener\\\">California seg\u00fan Joan Didion: el lado oscuro del sue\u00f1o americano<\/a><\/span><\/p><p><span style=\\\"text-decoration: underline;\\\"><a href=\\\"https:\/\/www.penguinlibros.com\/es\/revista-lengua\/no-ficcion\/barack-obama-bruce-springsteen-renegados\\\" target=\\\"_blank\\\" rel=\\\"noopener\\\">Obama y Springsteen: las venas abiertas de Estados Unidos<\/a><\/span><\/p><p><span style=\\\"text-decoration: underline;\\\"><a href=\\\"https:\/\/www.penguinlibros.com\/es\/revista-lengua\/no-ficcion\/memorias-hunter-biden-cosas-bonitas\\\" target=\\\"_blank\\\" rel=\\\"noopener\\\">Auge, ca\u00edda y \u00bfresurrecci\u00f3n? de Hunter Biden<\/a><\/span><\/p><p><span style=\\\"text-decoration: underline;\\\"><span style=\\\"text-decoration: underline;\\\"><a href=\\\"https:\/\/www.penguinlibros.com\/es\/revista-lengua\/literatura\/sergio-ramirez-la-lengua-que-es-mi-patria\\\" target=\\\"_blank\\\" rel=\\\"noopener\\\">La lengua, que es mi 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15 minutos
7 de mayo de 1968. Arde París. Crédito: Getty Images.

7 de mayo de 1968. Arde París. Crédito: Getty Images.

En mayo de 1968, poco después de las manifestaciones juveniles que habían tenido lugar en París, el primer ministro francés, Georges Pompidou, advirtió que «nuestra civilización está siendo cuestionada. No el gobierno, no las instituciones, ni siquiera Francia, sino la sociedad moderna materialista y carente de alma» (ver notas al pie: 1). Tal vez fuera algo exagerado, pero sin duda los muchachos que ocuparon la universidad y las calles parisinas también lo creían así: les parecía que nuestra civilización, la civilización occidental, estaba esencialmente mal. Por supuesto, no les gustaba el gobierno, ni la regulación de las universidades, ni ver coartada su libertad sexual, pero por encima de todo creían que el capitalismo de posguerra y la cultura burguesa habían acabado con la autonomía de los individuos y sus más íntimas necesidades de expresión. Las autoridades no comprendieron estas reivindicaciones —no debió de ayudar, sin duda, el lenguaje a veces incomprensible, a veces infantil, de los jóvenes—, y las tomaron por una revuelta comunista. En realidad, no era eso: es cierto que muchos manifestantes simpatizaban con el maoísmo y su Revolución Cultural, pero no pretendían dar un golpe de Estado. Quizá por primera vez en la historia, la revolución no estaba destinada a expulsar violentamente a los poderosos y sustituirlos. Esos jóvenes —a diferencia de los obreros franceses también movilizados en esa época, cuyas reivindicaciones eran clásicamente sindicalistas— carecían de un programa, de unas propuestas legislativas, de un modelo de convivencia para el día después. Aunque de haberlo tenido, poco habría importado: en las elecciones convocadas a toda prisa por el presidente De Gaulle, celebradas la última semana de junio, su partido, la Union pour la Defénse de la République, arrasó y la izquierda se desplomó. Es cierto, sin embargo, que aquellos jóvenes no estaban muy interesados, al menos entonces, en la política de partidos. 

En Estados Unidos, tras años de revueltas estudiantiles galvanizadas por el movimiento contrario a la guerra de Vietnam y por las luchas por los derechos civiles de los negros, un puñado de estudiantes blancos de clase media decidieron articular políticamente su movimiento, aunque fuera a modo de parodia. Hartos de la inacción hippy, en 1967 organizaron un partido, el Youth International Party —cuyos miembros eran conocidos como yippies— para luchar contra un sistema que les impedía satisfacer lo que consideraban aspiraciones legítimas de libertad. Pedían la creación de instituciones contraculturales —de cooperativas alimentarias a hospitales gratuitos— que fueran poco a poco socavando el sistema con lo que llamaron la Nueva Nación. «Queremos que todo el mundo controle su propia vida y cuide de los demás. […] No podemos tolerar actitudes, instituciones y maquinarias cuyo fin es la destrucción de la vida, la acumulación de beneficios» (2). Entre las primeras medidas del partido estuvieron la creación de unos Juegos Olímpicos alternativos, afirmar que habían contaminado con LSD el agua potable de Chicago y la nominación de un cerdo llamado Pigasus the Inmortal como candidato a las elecciones presidenciales de 1968. Sin embargo, ese año, los hechos en crudo pesaron más que la nueva política teatral: fueron asesinados el líder negro Martin Luther King y el candidato presidencial Robert F. Kennedy, estallaron violentos disturbios raciales y la guerra de Vietnam se empantanó aún más. La canción del momento era «Hey Jude». Y el republicano Richard Nixon ganó las elecciones.

Tres años antes, en 1965, un barbudo que luego sería muy cercano a los yippies, Allen Ginsberg, fue nombrado Rey de Mayo en Praga. Los checoslovacos seguían viviendo bajo el comunismo, pero al menos tenían acceso a algunos pequeños placeres extravagantemente capitalistas como el rock, los vaqueros o el pelo largo y pudieron disfrutar durante unos días de Ginsberg, que durante su visita recitó en público oraciones budistas, tocó los platillos y logró que la policía checoslovaca le deportara del país. Las protestas estudiantiles se fueron sucediendo entre la tolerancia y la represión, y en 1968 el nuevo secretario general del Partido, Dubček, se vio obligado a presentarse al mismo tiempo como un reformista ante los checoslovacos —con medidas aperturistas conocidas como la Primavera de Praga— y como un hombre fuerte ante los rusos. Sin embargo, el 20 de agosto las tropas soviéticas y del resto del Pacto de Varsovia invadieron a su aliado por sus excesos occidentalizadores entre las protestas de jóvenes que se ponían a los pies de los tanques extranjeros para tratar de proteger las reformas del «socialismo con rostro humano». Después de muertes y de negociaciones, la parte checoslovaca y la moscovita firmaron un documento que era de hecho una vuelta a lo peor de la dictadura, pese a que las manifestaciones en contra de la dominación soviética no se detuvieron. Al final, Dubček fue sustituido en su puesto por Husák, encargado de «normalizar» —es decir, endurecer— el comunismo checoslovaco: la economía se centralizó de nuevo, se acabó con una tímida libertad de prensa y la cultura juvenil volvió a ser contrarrevolucionaria. En su obra de teatro Rock'n'Roll, el dramaturgo británico de origen checoslovaco Tom Stoppard le hace decir a la joven Lenka que, con el tiempo, «Haz el amor y no la guerra» acabaría siendo un lema más importante que «Trabajadores del mundo, uníos». Checoslovaquia siguió ocupada por los soviéticos hasta 1990

(...) no les gustaba el gobierno, ni la regulación de las universidades, ni ver coartada su libertad sexual, pero por encima de todo creían que el capitalismo de posguerra y la cultura burguesa habían acabado con la autonomía de los individuos.

«El gozo de la rebeldía justa»: ése fue, afirma Carlos Monsiváis, el rasgo principal del 68 mexicano. Lo que había empezado como una bronca entre pandillas estudiantiles acabó, tras la brutal represión policial, en un alzamiento poco articulado pero que reivindicaba unánimemente mayores libertades ante el régimen del PRI, un partido político de ideología confusa que llevaba en el poder desde 1929 gracias, en parte, a los fraudes electorales. Dice Monsiváis: «A los preparatorianos [estudiantes de bachillerato] que enfrentan a la policía no los impulsan el Mayo francés, las lecturas de Herbert Marcuse, los razonamientos del Che Guevara sobre el Hombre Nuevo, las lecciones de los estudiantes de Norteamérica (el Free Speech Movement de Berkeley, con su batalla por el derecho a decir "Fuck You"), y las repercusiones de la doctrina marxista, aunque sí influye en ellos, pero no de modo doctrinario, el fastidio ante la monumentalidad y la represión priístas. Estas contiendas vienen de la decisión simultánea del no dejarse, de la furia de las personas, de grupos, de pequeñas muchedumbres en aumento que, con audacia asombrosa, renuncian a uno de los rasgos constitutivos de la sociedad, la paciencia histórica ante la represión» (3). El 2 de octubre, francotiradores del ejército dispararon contra los manifestantes reunidos en la plaza de las Tres Culturas y mataron a un número indeterminado de personas, alrededor de setenta probablemente. Diez días más tarde, se celebró en la misma Ciudad de México la inauguración de la llamada Olimpiada de la Paz. El PRI siguió en el poder hasta el año 2000. 

Nueva York, 28 de septiembre de 1968. Yippies (miembros del pseudopolítico Partido Internacional de la Juventud) marchan por la Sexta Avenida de Manhattan portando a Pigasus the Inmortal, su candidato a la presidencia. Crédito: Getty Images.

Nueva York, 28 de septiembre de 1968. Yippies (miembros del Partido Internacional de la Juventud) marchan por la Sexta Avenida de Manhattan portando a Pigasus the Inmortal, su candidato a la presidencia. Crédito: Getty Images.

1968 fue un año de revueltas. «Donde había comunismo —dice Mark Kurlansky— la gente se rebeló contra el comunismo; donde había capitalismo, se rebeló contra él» (4). Sin embargo, ninguna de estas revueltas triunfó. Su efecto político inmediato no fue irrelevante, pero todos los sistemas institucionales contra los que se levantó la juventud ese año siguieron en su sitio muchos años más. Eso fue posible, en buena medida, por la desorganización y la inconsistencia ideológica de los rebeldes; y también, no hay que olvidarlo, porque eran una minoría en sus sociedades. Pero, sobre todo, por la fortaleza de los regímenes. 

El mundo en 1968 —y esto excluye a Checoslovaquia, que sin embargo no era un país pobre comparado con el resto del bloque soviético— era razonablemente próspero. Tras la catástrofe de la Segunda Guerra Mundial, la mayor parte de los países occidentales habían alcanzado un consenso político que tenía sus raíces en la socialdemocracia y la democracia cristiana en Europa, y en el New Deal en Estados Unidos: el Estado tenía el derecho y la obligación de intervenir en la economía para compensar aquellos aspectos en los que el mercado pareciera ser ineficiente. Los creadores de ese consenso no eran políticos que hoy consideraríamos exactamente progresistas —pensemos en Roosevelt o Truman en Estados Unidos, en Attlee en Gran Bretaña o en De Gaulle en Francia—, sino hombres de instinto conservador y elitista que se habían horrorizado ante la inestabilidad social que habían provocado las guerras, y que se dieron cuenta de que el mejor modo de anular toda posibilidad de un retorno a ese infierno era reducir la desigualdad, el desempleo y la inflación al mismo tiempo que se mantenía un gran espacio para el mercado y las libertades públicas, aunque fuera bajo una estricta regulación estatal. 

Ese consenso daría pie a lo que Eric Hobsbawm llamó los Años de Oro: una época de relativa paz y estabilidad en la que los estados del mundo occidental decidieron fortalecerse y proveer —cada uno en la medida de sus posibilidades y su cultura política— de sistemas de transporte público, subsidios al desempleo, viviendas de protección oficial, sanidad subvencionada, acceso a la cultura, límites de precios, protecciones laborales y mecanismos de ascenso social a todos los ciudadanos. Los resultados fueron asombrosos. La brecha entre ricos y pobres disminuyó en Gran Bretaña y Estados Unidos, en Francia el empleo se volvió seguro, Alemania se levantó de las dos derrotas de las guerras mundiales en muy poco tiempo y en Escandinavia y Canadá se forjaron sociedades igualitarias y libres.

¿Por qué los jóvenes sesentayochistas se hartaron de este sistema que tan bien parecía funcionar y que, sin duda, no tenía comparación posible en la historia en términos de justicia y bienestar? Occidente, naturalmente, distaba de ser perfecto. En Estados Unidos, la segregación racial seguía siendo un hecho y el país estaba empantanado en una guerra mortífera, difícil de comprender e impopular en casi todos los rincones del mundo. Además de eso, los jóvenes se sentían aislados del capitalismo aparentemente idílico de los años cincuenta, de sus rigideces e hipocresías. En la Alemania Federal, muchos jóvenes sentían que los responsables de la hecatombe de la Segunda Guerra Mundial no habían acabado de pagar el precio de sus atrocidades, y que la resolución del conflicto, con la partición del país bajo el mandato de potencias extranjeras, era una humillación que no cerraba las heridas; no pocos de ellos creían que esto sí había quedado resuelto en la comunista República Democrática de Alemania. Y en países como Francia, España o el Reino Unido seguía mandando la gerontocracia de la posguerra —De Gaulle, Franco y, hasta poco antes, Macmillan—, que había crecido en un mundo aún colonial, había sido incapaz de comprender los cambios culturales que se habían producido en sus países e, inevitablemente, veía el mundo en los términos de la guerra fría, que en esa época se hallaba en uno de sus peores momentos y que hasta entonces había dejado poco espacio para la imaginación ideológica. 

París, 13 de mayo de 1968. Dos estudiantes sobre la estatua de Louis Pasteur, en la que se colocó la bandera roja, símbolo internacional del comunismo, en el patio de la Sorbona. Ese mismo día, los estudiantes comenzaron una sentada dentro de histórica universidad parisina, donde se celebraron reuniones y conferencias. Crédito: Getty Images.

París, 13 de mayo de 1968. Dos estudiantes sobre la estatua de Louis Pasteur, en la que se colocó la bandera roja, símbolo internacional del comunismo, en el patio de la Sorbona. Ese mismo día, los estudiantes comenzaron una sentada dentro de histórica universidad parisina, donde se celebraron reuniones y conferencias. Crédito: Getty Images.

Sin embargo, estas circunstancias políticas no fueron las únicas que dieron pie a los alzamientos del 68. De gran importancia fue la explosión demográfica de la posguerra. «Europa, como resultaba patente, estaba llena de jóvenes», afirma Tony Judt (5). A consecuencia de ello, en países como el Reino Unido, Italia o Francia, la edad de salida de la educación obligatoria se elevó. Los institutos y las universidades, tradicionalmente sólo accesibles para las élites o estudiantes especialmente dotados receptores de becas, tuvieron que abrirse a jóvenes de todas las clases sociales, con lo que, como señala Judt, la brecha entre esos nuevos estudiantes y sus padres de origen rural u obrero se amplió enormemente. También estaba la eclosión de la cultura pop: aunque pareciera una frívola sucesión de grupos musicales ruidosos y ropa un poco ridícula, el pop estaba abriendo formas de expresión a una juventud que, más allá de estar airada políticamente, veía en la cultura de masas una posibilidad de liberarse de las rigideces de la tradición paternalista —no sólo de las familias, también del Estado—, porque, casi inevitablemente, los adultos parecían incapaces de encontrarle otro significado que el simple hedonismo o el abierto mal gusto.

1968 fue un año de revueltas. Sin embargo, ninguna de estas revueltas triunfó. Su efecto político inmediato no fue irrelevante, pero todos los sistemas institucionales contra los que se levantó la juventud ese año siguieron en su sitio muchos años más. 

Pero además de eso, o quizá a consecuencia de eso, se estaba empezando a producir un cisma en la izquierda. Tradicionalmente, al menos en Europa, la izquierda se había considerado la representación natural del proletariado. El comunismo francés y el italiano, el laborismo británico, los partidos de los trabajadores de Holanda y Bélgica, y hasta el Partido Comunista español, creían encarnar los intereses de los trabajadores industriales, aunque éstos no fueran necesariamente, en su mayoría, comunistas, o siquiera de izquierdas. Sin embargo, esos partidos, que fiaban su suerte electoral a la fidelidad de ese proletariado —no en España, naturalmente, donde el PC era clandestino y no había elecciones libres—, debieron hacer frente al principio del declive de los trabajadores industriales como clase y, por lo tanto, de los intereses tradicionalmente asociados a ella. Sin duda, los obreros urbanos de grandes fábricas seguían siendo claves para la izquierda oficial, pero cada vez se producían más nuevas versiones de la agenda progresista, singularmente en las universidades. Fuera por la fascinación por los movimientos revolucionarios del Tercer Mundo, o por la relectura un poco excéntrica de los escritos de Marx y el psicoanálisis, muchos jóvenes universitarios —algunos de ellos, naturalmente, de extracción obrera, pero muchos más de clase media con una idea sólo literaria de la precariedad de los trabajadores— empezaron a olvidarse de las reivindicaciones posibilistas de la tradición socialdemócrata o hasta la comunista occidental y, llevados por complejas elaboraciones teóricas que no podía comprender ningún peón, a exigir más libertad. Algunos, sin duda, querían sólo eso; otros, como se temía Pompidou, querían acabar con los fundamentos de la civilización occidental, fuera para arrastrarla a modelos revolucionarios como el cubano o el chino, o para abocarla a un comunitarismo maximalista y no violento. Tras las algaradas del mayo parisiense, Georges Marchais, líder del Partido Comunista Francés, les llamó, simplemente, fils à papa, hijos de papá. Su partido sostuvo que aquello no era ni mucho menos una revolución, sino una simple fiesta. 

Londres, julio de 1967. Alan Ginsberg interpretando un canto indio durante uno de sus recitales en Hyde Park. Crédito: Getty Images.

Londres, julio de 1967. Alan Ginsberg interpretando un canto indio durante uno de sus recitales en Hyde Park. Crédito: Getty Images.

Sin embargo, no en todos los países pudo decirse que aquello hubiera sido una fiesta. En 1968, ETA cometió su primer asesinato reconocido, el del guardia civil José Ángel Pardines Acay, y poco después asesinó al policía vasco Melitón Manzanas. En 1969, en Italia apareció Lotta Continua, un grupo surgido de las manifestaciones estudiantiles y obreras del año anterior y de carácter marxista-leninista que en 1972 asesinó al comisario de policía de Milán Luigi Calabresi. En 1967, en Alemania la policía mató al estudiante Benno Ohnesorg durante una manifestación celebrada en Berlín contra el sha de Irán, se produjeron varias muertes en los incidentes de las semanas siguientes y grupos cada vez más extremistas, muchos de ellos maoístas, recibieron financiación del Bloque Comunista para cometer actos revolucionarios; a partir de 1970, la Fracción del Ejército Rojo —conocida como Baader Meinhof por los apellidos de dos de sus líderes— asaltaría bancos para comprar armas y atacaría instalaciones militares y medios de comunicación. 

«Los sesenta acabaron mal en todas partes —afirma Tony Judt—. El cierre del largo ciclo de crecimiento y prosperidad de la posguerra disipó la retórica y los proyectos de la nueva izquierda; el énfasis optimista en la alienación postindustrial y la despersonalización de la vida moderna pronto se vería desplazado por una renovada atención hacia los empleos y salarios» (6). Por lo demás, los logros reformistas fueron pocos: se extendió la reducción de la edad mínima para el voto a los dieciocho años y las universidades trataron de asumir algunas de las reclamaciones estudiantiles, pero no mucho más, por el momento. Los logros políticos de los años sesenta llegarían más tarde, y lo harían casi siempre por medios inesperados.



Notas:

1. Citado en Bruce J. Schulman, The Seventies, Da Capo Press, Nueva York, 2002, p. 1.
2. The New Yippie Book Collective, eds., Blacklisted News: Secret Histories from Chicago to 1984, Bleecker Publishing, Nueva York, 1983, p. 514, citado en en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Youth_International_Party.
3. Carlos Monsiváis, El 68. La tradición de la resistencia, Bolsillo ERA, México, 2008, p. 84.
4. Mark Kurlansky, 1968. El año que conmocionó al mundo, Destino, Barcelona, 2005, p. 17.
5. Tony Judt, Posguerra, Taurus, Madrid, 2006, p. 570.
6. Ibid., p. 651.

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